Back in the 1980s, several African governments implemented universal fertilizer subsidy programs with support from international lenders. However, citing high budget deficits and macroeconomic imbalances, most countries were forced to discontinue these in the 1990s by the international lenders – who held a different view on the role of the state in business development. That said, by then, the programs had not been particularly effective in boosting agricultural productivity, with studies showing high costs and mismanagement of funds. By 2000s, Africa implemented a new type of fertilizer subsidy program. The program was led by the African Union, and incorporated more targeted subsidies in Eastern and Southern countries. For instance, Kenya targeted staples with vouchers for selected farmers to purchase fertilizer, Zambia targeted maize with direct physical distribution of subsidized fertilizer to designated farmer groups.