Significantly, it is important to note, that one of the reasons for the state’s efficiency was its use of already existing “emptying infrastructures” that shifted the burden from the government to residents. These infrastructures include territorial US citizenship (1917), which does not provide basic citizenship rights but allows for the free movement of people from the island to the United States; safe and relatively affordable commercial air transportation (1940s); and the physical, organizational, and emotional resources of millions of Puerto Ricans already living in the United States, particularly in regions with sizeable Puerto Rican communities. The ways that US Puerto Rican bodily and community infrastructure has been fundamental to sustain this migration is consistent with other migratory experience. As scholars William Vélez and Giovani Burgos (2010) have written, “initial settlement in an ethnic enclave can lower some of the costs associated with migration by softening the ‘culture shock’ of living in a strange country with different normative practices, decreases discriminatory encounters with whites, and gives them access and information on jobs, housing, and services” (180).