Ironically, neither out-migration nor greater capitalist production on the island reduced unemployment or destitution; rather it further modernized poverty and underscored that it was not “excess” population but colonial-capitalist relations that generated economic inequality. Many migrants similarly went on to live in cities with not only a higher population density than that of the island, but also with processes of racial-colonial expulsion of their own (Lorrin 2015). In the 1960s and 1970s, Puerto Ricans in New York, for instance, again faced “relocation” policies that removed poor communities outside of gentrifying sectors in Manhattan to other boroughs, primarily Brooklyn and the Bronx. As political scientist and community activist Angel López has written, New York Puerto Ricans experienced “second-class citizenship, the politics of neglect, conquest, displacement, vulnerability to vulture-developers, weak democratic representation, and lack of transparency” (López 2017; Lorrin 2015).