By 1947, the rising Popular Democratic Party (PPD) under senate president Luis Muñoz Marín launched the US-authorized Operation Bootstrap to implement this vision. A policy with both national and global dimensions, it sought to turn Puerto Rico into a showcase of US-led development in the context of the Cold War and quickly shift colonial-capitalist extraction from monoculture to manufacturing by offering American companies financial incentives to settle in Puerto Rico. The process, as sociologist César Ayala (1996) has documented, required two major expulsions: first, an expulsion from the countryside to urban areas, as growing numbers of factories opened in towns and cities and as the sugar cane and other industries started to collapse (61–90), and second, an expulsion from the island’s cities to the continental United States, as the expansion of manufacturing did not generate sufficient employment to absorb the “surplus” labor created by the incorporation of machinery and the decline in agricultural employment (60–61).