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Regis College is a private, non-profit university founded in 1927 by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Boston. The university is located in Weston, Massachusetts, 12 miles outside of Boston, and offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional studies degree and certificate programs via on campus, fully online, and hybrid formats. Regis provides an academically rigorous education within the schools of nursing, arts and sciences, business and communication, and health sciences. Inspired by the social justice values of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Boston, Regis engages with service initiatives within the local community and around the world. History Regis College was founded in 1927 by the Sisters of St. Joseph. The college's name is inspired by the Reverend Mother Mary Regis Casserly, who established the Sisters of St. Joseph in Boston in 1873. After eight decades as a women's only college, Regis enrolled its first co-educational class in fall 2007. As of fall 2022, approximately 3,600 undergraduate and graduate students were enrolled at Regis and the school had a 10 to 1 student/faculty ratio. Ninety-seven percent of Regis students are employed full-time or enrolled in graduate school within six months of graduation (5-year average as of fall 2022). Projects and programs The Center for Global Connections oversees academic and service-learning initiatives for students. The Regis Haiti Project is an international faculty partnership initiative to help elevate Haitian nursing education and empower Haitian nursing faculty through the master's degree to teach others across Haiti. Regis offers an accredited pre-school and kindergarten program at its Children's Center. The program teaches children from the age of 15 months to six years old about science, math, engineering, and technology. In 2005, Regis founded a Life Long Learning Program (LLARC) that offers courses taught by volunteers to older adults at the Regis College in Weston campus. The school is also known for its pre-college Summer Scholars program which allows rising high school juniors and seniors to live and study on a college campus during the summer. Academics Regis currently offers degrees within four schools: The Richard and Sheila Young School of Nursing, the School of Health Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, and the Sloane School of Business and Communication. Specific Degree designations that can be obtained through the attendance of Regis include: A.S.N., B.S.N, B.A., B.S., B.S.W., M.A.T., M.S., M.S.N., D.N.P, M.A., Ed.D. as well as both undergraduate and graduate certificates. Regis College has cross-registration privileges with Babson, Bentley, Brandeis University, and Boston College as well as a cooperative degree program with Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Regis is affiliated with the Sisters of Saint Joseph College Consortium, University College Cork in Ireland, and Kyoto Notre Dame University in Kyoto, Japan for study abroad, as well as American University’s Washington Semester program. Regis offers 27 undergraduate academic programs, 28 graduate & doctoral programs, and 29 minors. The Richard and Sheila Young School of Nursing is designated as a Center of Excellence in Nursing Education by the National League of Nursing. The school offers undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs in Nursing with multiple tracks. The School of Nursing offers a Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), fully online Master of Science in Health Administration, a Master of Science in Nursing programs. Regis also offers health care and information technology certificates through the Theresa Wood Lavine Division of Professional Studies to students preparing for industry-related certification exams and career advancement. Student life On-campus housing is guaranteed for all undergraduates in one of five residence halls: Angela Hall, Maria Hall, Domitilla Hall, St. Joseph Hall, and College Hall. The Student Center houses the Undergraduate Admissions Office, Main Dining Hall, Tower Tavern, WRGS (the Regis College radio station), the bookstore, a post office, and several lounge areas for meetings or events. The Fine Arts Center houses the Eleanor Welch Casey Theatre and the Carney Art Gallery. The campus also features a Science Center, the Spellman Museum of Stamps & Postal History, and a Fitness Center housing: dance studios, weight and cardiovascular equipment, basketball courts, a swimming pool, and newly designed athletic fields. There are currently over 25 clubs and organizations in which students may become involved, meet new people and stay active. Students are also free to start their own clubs on campus with help and may petition funding from the college. Regis has multiple outdoor athletic facilities including an artificial turf field surface for field hockey, lacrosse, and soccer with an eight-lane track surface circling the fields. Nearby are six tennis courts, and a full softball diamond with lights. Within the athletic building are the gymnasium, a first class athletic training room, and the pool. The Mary Carr Simone Fitness Center, which holds Cybex equipment, six flat screen HD televisions, and multiple pieces of cardio equipment, can also be found inside the building. Athletics Regis College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Pride are a member of the Great Northeast Athletic Conference (GNAC), which they started competing in for the fall 2017 season. Regis was formerly a member of the Commonwealth Coast Conference (CCC) between the 1988–89 and the 2010–11 seasons and the New England Collegiate Conference (NECC) between the 2011–12 and the 2016-2017 seasons. Men's sports include basketball, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball; while women's sports include basketball, field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball. In 2015, The Pride won NECC Championships in Women's Volleyball, Men's and Women's Swimming and Diving, Men's and Women's Tennis, Women's Field Hockey, Men's and Women's Basketball and Women's Lacrosse. References External links Official athletics website Former women's universities and colleges in the United States Liberal arts colleges in Massachusetts Catholic universities and colleges in Massachusetts Sisters of Saint Joseph colleges and universities Universities and colleges established in 1927 Universities and colleges in Middlesex County, Massachusetts Weston, Massachusetts 1927 establishments in Massachusetts

Harold Victor Campbell Thorby (2 October 1888 – 1 January 1973) was an Australian politician. He was a member of the Country Party and served as the party's deputy leader from 1937 to 1940. He represented the Division of Calare (1931–1940) and held ministerial office as Minister for War Service Homes (1934–1936), Defence (1937–1938), Civil Aviation (1938–1939), Health (1940), and Postmaster-General (1940). He lost his seat at the 1940 federal election. Early life Thorby was born on 2 October 1888 in Annandale, Sydney, New South Wales. He was the son of Elizabeth (née Campbell) and Frederick James Thorby; his mother was Irish and his father English. Thorby grew up with his maternal grandparents in Geurie and attended the local public school before going on to Sydney Grammar School. He later acquired his own property in Geurie and studied woolclassing, veterinary science and architecture through Sydney Technical College. He also worked as a construction foreman for his father, whose firm had projects in Sydney and Newcastle. In 1916, he married Vera Lynda Morley and they had two daughters. State politics Thorby was a member of the three-member electoral district of Wammerawa in the NSW Legislative Assembly from 1922 to 1927 for the Country Party. After its division into single-member electorates in 1927 he represented Castlereagh for one term to 1930 until his defeat by Joseph Alfred Clark of the Labor Party. He was the Minister for Agriculture and chairman of the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission in the government of Thomas Bavin from 1927 to 1930, during which construction of the Wyangala Dam commenced, the Burrinjuck Dam was finished and the Hawkesbury Agricultural College was enlarged. Federal politics At the 1931 general election, Thorby won the federal seat of Calare, which he held until 1940. He was a Minister without Portfolio from November 1934 to November 1937 in the Lyons government, entitled Assistant Minister for Repatriation (1934–35), Minister for War Service Homes (1935–36) and Assistant Minister for Commerce (1935–37). In November 1937, Thorby was elected deputy leader of the Country Party, defeating John McEwen by a single vote on the second ballot. He subsequently served as Minister for Defence from November 1937 to November 1938 and Minister for Works and Minister for Civil Aviation from November 1938. During this period he initiated a program of adding annexes to existing factories to accelerate armaments production, but this program failed to spend even budgeted funds. In April 1939, he left the ministry when the Country Party refused to take part in the Menzies government. With the formation of a coalition government in March 1940, Thorby became Minister for Health and Postmaster-General. Later years After his defeat at the 1940 election by Labor's John Breen, Thorby ran unsuccessfully for the state seat of Dubbo at the 1941 by-election and the federal seat of Calare at the 1943 and 1946 elections. He returned to farming on his wife's parents property at Wongarbon and remained active in the Graziers' Association and the Country Party. Thorby's first wife died in 1958 and he married Alfreda Rogers Smith in 1960. He died at his home in the Sydney suburb of Wahroonga, survived by two daughters from his first marriage. References   Members of the Cabinet of Australia 1888 births 1973 deaths Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Calare Members of the Australian House of Representatives Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly People educated at Sydney Grammar School National Party of Australia members of the Parliament of New South Wales National Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia Defence ministers of Australia 20th-century Australian politicians Australian Ministers for Health

Pietro Scalia (born March 17, 1960) is an Italian-American film editor. He won Best Film Editing at the 64th Academy Awards for his work on the film JFK, sharing the award with Joe Hutshing, and at the 74th Academy Awards for Black Hawk Down. Life and career He was born in Catania, Sicily and later he moved to Switzerland with his parents. There, he attended Swiss-German schools until high school. After graduation, he decided to move to the United States to pursue his college education. He spent two years at the University at Albany, The State University of New York, after which he was accepted as an undergraduate at UCLA. The Swiss government's scholarship helped him through five years of UCLA and in 1985 he earned his Master of Fine Arts from the UCLA Film School. After his MFA, a couple of short films, a screenplay, two video documentaries, and a 16 mm thesis film, he returned to Europe to pursue his desire to become a film director. Shortly afterwards, he returned to United States on a work visa to pursue his career in Hollywood as a film editor. He began as an editor on Andrei Konchalovski's Shy People. Later, he received an assistant editor position working with Oliver Stone. However, it was not easy to get the job. Scalia admired Oliver Stone's work, especially Salvador, so he decided he wanted to work with that director. He got a contact through the sister of one of the assistant editors. Scalia worked on such films as Wall Street (1987) and Talk Radio (1988). He later continued as an associate editor on Born on the Fourth of July and as an additional editor on The Doors. After five years of working with Oliver Stone, Scalia was finally asked to fully edit a film. It was JFK, for which Scalia and his co-editor, Joe Hutshing, were honored with an Academy Award for Film Editing. Craig McKay was nominated the same year for editing The Silence of the Lambs. Scalia edited a sequel to the movie, Hannibal ten years later. He also received a BAFTA Award and A.C.E. Award for his work. Pietro Scalia worked with Bernardo Bertolucci on Little Buddha (1993) and Stealing Beauty (1996), as well as with Sam Raimi on The Quick and the Dead (1995). He earned two more Academy Award nominations: first in 1997 for Good Will Hunting and second in 2000 for Gladiator, and a second Academy Award for director Ridley Scott's Black Hawk Down. He also edited G.I. Jane and a pilot episode of a TV series American Gothic in late 1990s. In the recent years, Scalia edited such movies as Levity (2003) directed by Ed Solomon, a documentary entitled Ashes and Snow, The Great Raid directed by John Dahl, and Memoirs of a Geisha, one of the most publicized movies of 2005, directed by Rob Marshall. Scalia also worked on Hannibal Rising, a movie that tells a story of a teenaged Hannibal and his young sister Mischa Lecter after their parents are killed in World War II. It was directed by Peter Webber and released in 2006. He has a long lasting relationship with Ridley Scott working on movies such as American Gangster in 2007, Body of Lies in 2008 and Robin Hood in 2010. Most recently he worked with director Ridley Scott on The Martian, released in October 2015. In May 2017, Scalia replaced editor Chris Dickens on the film Solo: A Star Wars Story, which was released in May 2018. He lives in Los Angeles with his wife Teresa Sparks and two children, Julian and Maia Scalia. Filmography As film editor: 1990 Megaville 1991 JFK 1992 Jackpot 1993 Little Buddha 1995 The Quick and the Dead 1995 American Gothic (TV pilot, first cut) 1996 Stealing Beauty 1997 G.I. Jane 1997 Good Will Hunting 1998 The Big Hit 1998 Playing by Heart 2000 Gladiator 2001 Hannibal 2001 Black Hawk Down 2003 Levity 2003 Masked and Anonymous 2005 Ashes and Snow 2005 The Great Raid 2005 Memoirs of a Geisha 2007 American Gangster 2007 Hannibal Rising 2007 The 11th Hour 2008 Body of Lies 2009 40 Years of Silence: An Indonesian Tragedy 2010 Robin Hood 2010 Kick-Ass 2012 The Amazing Spider-Man 2012 Prometheus 2013 The Counselor 2014 The Amazing Spider-Man 2 2015 Child 44 2015 The Sea of Trees 2015 The Martian 2016 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi 2017 Alien: Covenant 2018 Solo: A Star Wars Story 2022 Morbius (Also associate producer) 2022 Ambulance 2022 The Gray Man 2023 Ferrari Oscars and Oscar nominations 1992 – JFK (won w/ co-editor, Joe Hutshing) 1998 – Good Will Hunting (nominated) 2001 – Gladiator (nominated) 2002 – Black Hawk Down (won) References External links Filmed BAFTA event with Pietro Scala, July 2009 1960 births Living people Film people from Catania American Cinema Editors Best Editing BAFTA Award winners Best Film Editing Academy Award winners Italian film editors Italian emigrants to the United States American film editors

"Friday on My Mind" is a 1966 song by Australian rock group the Easybeats. Written by band members George Young and Harry Vanda, the track became a worldwide hit, reaching No.16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in May 1967 in the US, No.1 on the Dutch Top 40 chart, No.1 in Australia and No.6 in the UK, as well as charting in several other countries. In 2001, it was voted "Best Australian Song" of all time by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) as determined by a panel of 100 music industry personalities. In 2007, "Friday on My Mind" was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry. In January 2018, as part of Triple M's "Ozzest 100", the 'most Australian' songs of all time, "Friday on My Mind" was ranked No. 25. Composition The minor-key verses of "Friday on My Mind" depict the tedium and drudgery of the work week, taking each day at a time ("Monday morning feels so bad/Coming Tuesday I feel better"). These verses are adorned with a distinctive guitar figure. The build-up to the chorus features a slowly rising vocal, culminating with a shout of "Cos I'll have Friday on my mind!", and launching into a major-key refrain celebrating the pleasures of the weekend in the city. Though the song has long been termed a "working class anthem", George Young maintained it had "more to do with their outlook on the world than any class statement". According to Harry Vanda, the track's distinctive guitar opening was inspired by a film performance featuring the Swingle Singers: "It went tudutudutudu, which made us all laugh. In the train back from the gig, we were imitating them and suddenly it sounded good. They became the first notes of 'Friday on My Mind'." Release and aftermath In addition to its 7" single release in October 1966, the song was issued in the United Kingdom on the band's first album for United Artists titled Good Friday which was also released in North America under the song's title. In Australia the song was released instead with its B-side, "Made My Bed (Gonna Lie in It)", on the greatest hits package The Best of The Easybeats + Pretty Girl in 1967 and an EP named after the track in September 1967, with the tracks "Sorry", "Who'll Be the One" and "Made My Bed, Gonna Lie in It". A 2005 rerelease on CD single, along with "Remember Sam", "Pretty Girl" and "Made My Bed, Gonna Lie in It", featured a cover (pictured right) based on an earlier French sleeve. On 28 May 2001, the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) celebrated its 75th anniversary by naming the Best Australian Songs of all time, as decided by a 100 strong industry panel, with "Friday on My Mind" being selected as the No.1 song on the list. At the APRA Awards ceremony You Am I performed "Friday on My Mind" with Harry Vanda of The Easybeats guesting on guitar, Ross Wilson of Daddy Cool performed the No. 2 listed song "Eagle Rock", Midnight Oil's "Beds are Burning" at No. 3 was shown on video. "Friday on My Mind" was ranked No. 10 out of 2006 songs featured in the Triple M Essential 2006 Countdown. In the series 20 to 01, it was No. 1 on the "Greatest Aussie Songs" show. The song is heard in the Australian films One Night Stand (1984), and December Boys (2007). Charts Track listing "Friday on My Mind" (Harry Vanda, George Young) – 2:47 "Made My Bed (Gonna Lie in It)" (Young) – 2:20 Personnel Musicians Stevie Wright – lead vocals Harry Vanda – lead guitar, backing vocals George Young – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Dick Diamonde – bass guitar Gordon "Snowy" Fleet – drums Technical Shel Talmy – producer Glyn Johns – engineer Cover versions The song has been covered many times: Initially by Tages, who released the song for their November 1966 album Extra Extra. The Shadows did an instrumental version of the song on their 1967 album Jigsaw. Les Hou-Lops made a French cover "Vendredi m'obsède" in 1967, also recorded in the same year by Erick Saint Laurent. The song was also performed by Romanian band Phoenix on their first EP, Vremuri ("Old times") in 1968. David Bowie recorded a version on his 1973 RCA covers album Pin Ups; for Harry Vanda, it was "the only cover I ever liked". Also in 1973, San Francisco-based Earth Quake covered the song, which was released as the first-ever single on the Beserkley Records label. The live recording by Earth Quake was well known in Cleveland in the late 1970s, as one of three songs played each Friday at 6.00pm by leading rock radio station WMMS to mark the start of the weekend. Other covers Other acts who have covered the song include: John Alan Daubert Chilly The Dukes (Dutch band) Gary Moore Peter Frampton Peter Doyle Richard Thompson (1000 Years of Popular Music) Ben Lee Blue Öyster Cult the Busters the Kursaal Flyers The New Orleans based band The Cold The punk band London, whose version was recorded by producer Simon Napier-Bell in the same recording studios (IBC Studios in London) where the Easybeats had cut the original. South Yorkshire mod revival band the Gents released Friday on My Mind as a single in 1986 and reached No.95 in the UK national chart with the release. In July 2014, alternative rock band Residual Kid released a cover of the song as a charity single. References External links Albert Music: The Easybeats Listen to a sample of 'Friday on My Mind' and read more about the song on australianscreen online 'Friday on My Mind' was added to the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's Sounds of Australia registry in 2007 1966 singles 1967 singles APRA Award winners The Easybeats songs David Bowie songs Number-one singles in Australia Parlophone singles Song recordings produced by Shel Talmy Songs written by Harry Vanda Songs written by George Young (rock musician) United Artists Records singles 1966 songs Garage rock songs Protopunk songs Power pop songs

The IIHF World Championship Division I is an annual sports event organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation. The divisional championship is played in two groups. History From 2001 until 2011 the two national teams that lost the relegation round at the IIHF World Championship were relegated to Division I for the following year's World Championships. At the Division I Championship, the winner of each group was promoted to the following year's IIHF World Championship, while the loser of each group was relegated to the Division II. Beginning in 2012, the last place team from each group in the world championship is relegated to Division I A, to be replaced by first and second place in Division I A. Sixth place in I A is relegated (now) to group I B, replaced by its winner, while sixth in I B is relegated to Division II. The Division I World Championship was formed in 2001 from Pool B and the top four Pool C teams. Beginning in 2012 the two groups became tiered rather than parallel. Group A teams were the nations who either were relegated from the World Championship, or placed 2nd and 3rd in their 2011 groups. Group B was formed from the 4th and 5th placed teams, as well as the teams promoted from Division II. Japan qualified for group A because the IIHF council voted unanimously to allow Japan to maintain their seeded position (3rd) in their respective tournaments for 2012. Results Pool B Champions (1951–2000) Summary of participation 59 championships Division I teams (2001–present) are ranked one through twelve, with this chart assessing gold, silver, and bronze to the nations who ranked 17th, 18th, and 19th overall. Note 1. The Federal Republic of Germany competed as West Germany from 1953 until 1990. Note 2. Czechoslovakia, Sweden, and Finland each hosted this level on one occasion each. See also Ice Hockey World Championships IIHF World Championship Division II IIHF World Championship Division III References External links 2010 IIHF Championship Program on iihf.com

Charles de Lannoy (c. 1487 – 23 September 1527) was a soldier and statesman from the Low Countries in service of the Habsburg Emperors Maximilian I and Charles V. Family He was a member of the noble de Lannoy family. Charles de Lannoy was born the younger son of Jean IV de Lannoy, Lord of Mingoval, himself nephew of Jean III de Lannoy. His mother was Philipotte de Lalaing (c. 1487). In 1509, he married Francoise de Montbel, with several children. In 1526 he became the first count of Lannoy and Mayordomo mayor to the Emperor. He was succeeded by his son Philip de Lannoy, 2nd Prince of Sulmona. Career He took service with the Emperor Maximilian I and won distinction for bravery and leadership. He was appointed member to the council of Charles of Burgundy; later Emperor Charles V and his Caballerizo mayor in 1515. He was appointed knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1516. He became governor of Tournai in 1521. He served as viceroy of Naples from 1522 to 1523. He became chief of Imperial armies in Italy upon the death of Prospero Colonna at the end of 1523. His main experience was that of Imperial lieutenant during the Italian war of 1521-1525 and the War of the League of Cognac. He commanded the Battle of the Sesia (1524), and the siege of Marseille (1524) and Pavia (1525). He died of a sudden illness in Naples on 23 September 1527. References 1487 births 1527 deaths People from Valenciennes Belgian princes Knights of the Golden Fleece Military leaders of the Italian Wars Viceroys of Naples Generals of the Holy Roman Empire Ch

The United Democratic Forces of Belarus (; ) is a coalition of political parties that oppose the presidency of Alexander Lukashenko, who has been in power since 1994. It was the main opposition group during the 2006 presidential election and chose Alexander Milinkevich as their candidate. Official Belarusian statistics reported Milinevich gained 6% of the vote, however Belarusian opposition and critics from Western countries have not accepted the official results as legitimate and believe this is an example of election fraudulence. Belarusian authorities have denied all accusations of election fraud. Currently the United Civic Party and Belarusian Left Party "A Just World" make up the majority of the coalition. The BPF Party keeps its membership in the coalition, however concentrates more on the newly created coalition of conservative parties, the Belarusian Independence Bloc. Members Belarusian Left Party "A Just World" United Civic Party of Belarus Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Assembly) Belarusian Labour Party BPF Party Movement for Freedom References External links 2006 establishments in Belarus Belarusian opposition Liberal parties in Belarus Political parties established in 2006 Political party alliances in Belarus Pro-European political parties in Belarus

Ruck Zuck (which loosely translated means "instantly" or "right now") is a remix album by KMFDM, featuring remixed tracks from their previous full-length release, Hau Ruck. Track listing References Metropolis catalog entry 2006 EPs KMFDM albums 2006 remix albums Remix EPs Metropolis Records remix albums Industrial remix albums

Francisco Fernández may refer to: Nobility Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 2nd Duke of Alburquerque (1467–1526), Spanish noble Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 4th Duke of Alburquerque (1510–1563), Spanish noble Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 7th Duke of Alburquerque (1575–1637), Spanish noble Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 8th Duke of Alburquerque (1619–1676), Spanish military officer and governor of New Spain Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque (1666–1724), viceroy of New Spain Politics and law Francisco Montealegre Fernández (1818–1875), Costa Rican politician and businessman Francisco Fernández de Béthencourt (1850–1916), Spanish politician Francisco Fernández Ordóñez (1930–1992), Spanish politician Francisco Fernández Marugán (born 1946), Spanish politician Francisco Fernández de Cevallos (born 1947), Mexican politician Francisco Sanz Fernández (born 1952), Spanish politician Francisco Javier Fernández (politician) (born 1969), Spanish politician Sports Gallego (footballer) (Francisco Fernández Rodríguez, born 1944), Spanish international footballer of the 1960s Francisco Fernández Ochoa (1950–2006), Spanish alpine skier Francisco Fernández Moreno (born 1954), Spanish road bicycle racer Francisco Fernández (Chilean footballer) (born 1975), Chilean association football player Paquillo Fernández (Francisco Javier Fernández, born 1977), Spanish racewalker Francisco Fernández (water polo) (born 1986), Spanish water polo player Others Francisco Fernández (artist) (1606–1646), Spanish painter Francisco Fernández Carvajal (born 1938), Spanish priest Francisco Moreno Fernández (born 1960), Spanish dialectologist and sociolinguist Francisco Fernández (supercentenarian) (1901–2012), Spanish supercentenarian See also Francisco José Fernandes Costa (1867–1925), member of the Portuguese Republican Party Frank Fernández (disambiguation) Francisco Javier Fernández (disambiguation)

Legacy: A Mormon Journey is a 53-minute film produced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Legacy depicts the life of two recent converts from the 1830s to the 1890s. The characters are fictional, though the events they experience are historical. The film was initially produced to be shown in the Legacy Theatre of the Joseph Smith Memorial Building (JSMB), following the building's complete remodel. After the building's reopening, Legacy premiered on July 3, 1993. In addition to screenings in the JSMB adjacent to Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah, it was shown at the visitors' centers at the church's Washington, D.C., and Mesa Arizona temples. It was replaced in March 2000 by The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd. Production Parts of the film were shot in Salt Lake City as well as New York, Wyoming, and Nauvoo, Illinois. The scene 41 minutes in when Eliza's wagon slips in the mud was not staged. The rain was unexpected and the crew continued filming as the wagon actually slipped off the road. Marcus Gilbert as David Walker pulled Kathleen Beller as Eliza Williams to safety. Additionally, the actor playing Eliza's father broke his leg trying to control the horses. He can be seen limping throughout the remainder of the film. Notes References Cast Kathleen Beller as Eliza Williams Benton Jennings as Governor Boggs Steve Abolt as Missouri Militia Officer Marcus Gilbert as David Walker J.T. Gorham as Young Rider Brian Lives as Missionary Will Schmitz Jr. as Wilford Woodruff External links 1990 films Films produced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Films directed by Kieth Merrill Mormon migration to Utah Films shot in Salt Lake City Films shot in New York (state) Films shot in Wyoming Films shot in Illinois 1990s English-language films

Anthony Allen Lerew (born October 28, 1982) is an American former professional baseball pitcher who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Atlanta Braves and Kansas City Royals; he also played Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) for the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, and in the KBO League for the Kia Tigers, he also played for the Navegantes del Magallanes on the LVBP Liga Venezolana de Béisbol Profesional where on 11/21/2010 against the Leones del Caracas (the biggest rival team) he managed to throw a no hit no run game. Career Atlanta Braves Lerew, a graduate of Northern York High School in Dillsburg, Pennsylvania, was drafted by the Atlanta Braves in the 11th round of the 2001 Major League Baseball draft. After four seasons in the Braves' minor league system, he debuted on September 4, , in a home game against the Cincinnati Reds. In the 2005 season, Lerew recorded no wins, no losses, 5 strikeouts, and a 5.62 earned run average in 7 games, all of which were relief outings. On February 23, , the Braves signed Lerew to a one-year deal. A month later, on February 23, he was optioned to the Triple-A Richmond Braves. With Richmond, Lerew compiled a 3–5 record with a 7.48 ERA and 69 strikeouts in 16 games, 15 of which he started. The Braves called up Lerew from Richmond on September 1, 2006. He made his 2006 debut the next day with a relief appearance in the fifth inning. Lerew pitched 2 innings, allowing 5 runs and striking out 1 batter. He was sent back down to the Richmond Braves on September 4, having appeared in only one game. On May 8, , Lerew made his first big-league start for Atlanta when he was called up from Richmond yet again, this time to replace Mark Redman in a game against the San Diego Padres. He was later sent down to Richmond again. On June 20, 2007, Lerew underwent season-ending Tommy John surgery and was placed on the 60-day disabled list. He recovered from surgery in Southern Florida, at the Braves extended spring training site. Once recovered, he spent the rest of pitching for the Gulf Coast Braves and with Triple-A Richmond. On March 5, , Lerew was outrighted to Triple-A Gwinnett to make room on the roster for Tom Glavine, and was released five days later. Kansas City Royals On March 18, 2009, Lerew signed a minor league deal with the Kansas City Royals. Lerew spent the 2009 minor league season with the Double-A Northwest Arkansas Naturals. He was called up in September and made his Royals debut on September 24, 2009. He re-signed with them in February. On June 16, 2010, Lerew was called up from the Triple-A Omaha Royals to the Royals to replace Luke Hochevar, who went on the disabled list with a sprained elbow. He earned his first career major league win on June 28 of that year over the Chicago White Sox. Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks Lerew signed with the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks of Nippon Professional Baseball for the 2011 season. Kia Tigers On January 16, 2012, Lerew signed a bonus of $50,000 with Kia Tigers of the Korea Baseball Organization with Alex Graman. As a starter, he went 11–13 in his first season with them, with 94 strikeouts and an earned run average of 3.83. He was resigned with Kia Tigers for 2013 season, but was released on July 24, 2013. York Revolution On April 11, 2014, the York Revolution signed Lerew. Los Angeles Angels Lerew signed a minor league deal with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on May 20, 2014. York Revolution Lerew signed with the York Revolution of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball for the 2015 season. He became a free agent after the 2015 season. References No-hitter Pitching for Navegantes del Magallanes in the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, Lerew pitched the 16th no-hitter in league history against Leones del Caracas on Nov. 21, 2010. External links , or Baseball Almanac, or Retrosheet, or Baseball Reference (Minor, Fall, Winter, Japanese, Korean and Independent Leagues) 1982 births Living people American expatriate baseball players in Japan American expatriate baseball players in South Korea Atlanta Braves players Baseball players from Cumberland County, Pennsylvania Danville Braves players Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks players Gulf Coast Braves players Kansas City Royals players KBO League pitchers Kia Tigers players Lobos de Arecibo players Major League Baseball pitchers Mississippi Braves players Myrtle Beach Pelicans players Navegantes del Magallanes players American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela Northwest Arkansas Naturals players Omaha Royals players People from Carlisle, Pennsylvania Peoria Javelinas players Richmond Braves players Rome Braves players Salt Lake Bees players York Revolution players

WALF (89.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a variety format. Licensed to Alfred, New York, United States, the station serves the Alfred area. The station is owned by Alfred University. History WALF-FM started in November 1971 in the basement of 6 Sayles Street, and has since moved twice, to Steinheim in the mid-1970s, and then to its current location in the Powell Campus Center when it opened in 1993. WALF-FM is run by student volunteers, and has a freeform genre - allowing the student volunteer DJs to play what they want (within Federal Communications Commission regulations). The students produce most of the programming from 9:00am–2:00am, with some programming including faculty and community members. References External links Alfred University ALF Radio stations established in 1971 1971 establishments in New York (state) Allegany County, New York

The Dust Factory is a 2004 film directed and written by Eric Small. Plot Ryan Flynn (Ryan Kelley) is a young boy who, traumatized by the death of his father, has not spoken aloud or exercised his imagination since. While on a walk with a friend, Ryan falls from a bridge and apparently drowns. He finds himself in a parallel universe called the Dust Factory, which houses all humans who are on the verge of death, but have yet to die. The Dust Factory's topography is immense, encompassing lakes, forests, mountains, and a wide field covered by dry grass. In the center of the Dust Factory is a circus pavilion whose Ringmaster is a figure of some authority and dread. Each person dwelling in the Dust Factory must enter the circus pavilion and make a leap (a literal leap of faith) across the arena into the arms of a trapeze artist to proceed into death or return to life. The latter decision occurs when a participant falls into the arena during the leap, leaving behind a pile of dust which marks the passage, gives the realm its name, and when disturbed allows the one doing so to enter a hidden chamber where they play a game of the individual's choosing against the Ringmaster. In the Factory, Ryan regains his voice and is reunited with his grandfather (Armin Mueller-Stahl), whose Alzheimer's disease has (in his real life) prevented him from communicating with his family. The grandfather, who is apparently knowledgeable about the inner workings of the Dust Factory, advises and tells him stories. The stories he tells, which outwardly appear to convey no obvious meaning, contain hidden parables that Ryan must solve. The theme of belief and hope versus cynicism or despair surfaces in relation to one of these. Throughout the main body of the plot, Ryan spends a single endless day exploring the Dust Factory under weather conditions that are always favorable to wandering through the environments and marveling at natural beauty. He is guided by his grandfather and accompanied by a girl of his own age called Melanie Lewis (Hayden Panettiere), who has been in the Dust Factory for years, lacks any memory of her previous life, and lives under the illusion that the climate is of perpetual winter, despite the appearance to Ryan and the viewer of interminable summer. Melanie and Ryan, under the eye of Ryan's grandfather, become intimate friends. Their time is passed in an emotional atmosphere of joy and discovery, mitigated only by the influence of the mysterious Ringmaster, who interferes several times with their activity, and by Melanie's conflict with Ryan's grandfather, who wishes Ryan to make the leap across the arena and thereby contradicts Melanie's desire that all things remain as they are forever. Matters gradually reach a climax, after which Ryan's grandfather makes the leap and dies. Subsequently, against Melanie's wishes (who does not want to be left alone in the Dust Factory), Ryan makes the leap himself, but falls into the pile of dust and is sent back to life. Melanie then defies her own delusion of continual winter and makes the decision to determine her own fate. Having returned to life, Ryan resurfaces from beneath the water and is rescued by his friend. Although he no longer has any conscious memory of the Dust Factory, it seems to be present in his subconscious, as implied by the facts that he has regained his voice, and a general feeling of joy in life. He subsequently encounters Melanie, who in real life has recovered from a cerebral aneurysm. Although neither Ryan or Melanie has any conscious memory of the other, they appear to subconsciously recognize each other. Cast Armin Mueller-Stahl as Grandpa Randolph Hayden Panettiere as Melanie Lewis Ryan Kelley as Ryan Flynn Kim Myers as Angie Flynn George De La Peña as Ringmaster Michael Angarano as Rocky Mazzelli Peter Horton as Lionel Reception The film has a 9% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Syndication It currently airs on The 3 on Epix and has also aired on MGM HD. External links 2004 films American fantasy films 2004 fantasy films Films scored by Luis Bacalov Films shot in Oregon Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films Films about parallel universes 2004 directorial debut films 2000s English-language films 2000s American films

Ajith Thilakasena (born 7 October 1933) is a Sinhala writer who deviated from the conventional use of language, creating his own version suitable for the modern age. His short stories are not only different from other Sinhala writers, in the use of the language, but also unique in style. Works Sathuro (1960) Wanadanawa Adata Obina Basa Para Dige film script. directed by Dharmasena Pathiraja (1985) Mada Viramaya Mal Veni Gal (1978) Poems Rali Suli (1991) Saadaya (1992) Subarathriyak Ahawarai (1984) Sunnadooli (1970) Aumuma Saha Peedawa Rathriye Purwa Bhagaya (1976) Pituwahal Kara Sitiddee (1964) Sanskrutika Kaanthaarayak Kara... (1987) Arunalla Watenakota Withara (2004) References 1933 births Living people Sinhalese writers

A tiller is a shoot that arises from the base of a grass plant. The term refers to all shoots that grow after the initial parent shoot grows from a seed. Tillers are segmented, each segment possessing its own two-part leaf. They are involved in vegetative propagation and, in some cases, also seed production. "Tillering" refers to the production of side shoots and is a property possessed by many species in the grass family. This enables them to produce multiple stems (tillers) starting from the initial single seedling. This ensures the formation of dense tufts and multiple seed heads. Tillering rates are heavily influenced by soil water quantity. When soil moisture is low, grasses tend to develop more sparse and deep root systems (as opposed to dense, lateral systems). Thus, in dry soils, tillering is inhibited: the lateral nature of tillering is not supported by lateral root growth. See also Crown (botany) References Grasses Biology terminology Plant morphology

Carlo Caffarra (1 June 1938 – 6 September 2017) was an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of Bologna from 2003 until 2015, when he retired. His previous positions included President of the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family from 1981 to 1995 and Archbishop of Ferrara-Comacchio from 1995 to 2003. He was created a Cardinal in the consistory of 24 March 2006 by Pope Benedict XVI. Early life Caffarra was born on 1 June 1938 in Samboseto di Busseto (province of Parma), Emilia Romagna. He was educated at the Episcopal Seminary of Fidenza and the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, where he completed a doctorate in Canon law. He was ordained a priest on 2 July 1961 in Rome. Beginning in 1965, he taught moral theology in the seminaries of Fidenza and Parma and later at the Studio Teologico Accademico Bolognese, the Università Cattolica in Milan, and at the Theological Faculty of Northern Italy. His academic specialty was the moral doctrine of marriage and the bioethics of human procreation. He also taught medical ethics in the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery at the Università Cattolica's campus in Rome. Pope Paul VI named him a member of the International Theological Commission where he served from 1974 to 1984. In 1980, Pope John Paul II named him an expert advisor to the Synod of Bishops on Marriage and the Family. He was the first President of the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family from its establishment in 1980 until 1995 and founded sections of the same institute in the United States, Spain and Mexico. John Paul II appointed him a consultor to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1983. He was an advisor to John Paul II on sexual issues. Bishop Caffarra was named Archbishop of Ferrara-Comacchio on 8 September 1995, and consecrated on 21 October 1995 in the Cathedral of Fidenza by Giacomo Biffi, Archbishop of Bologna. He was installed on 4 November. Caffarra was appointed Archbishop of the Bologna on 16 December 2003 and installed there on 15 February 2004. Caffarra was a noted opponent of contraception. In 1988, Caffarra weighed the sin of condom use against acquiring the AIDS virus: "Even the smallest moral wrong is so much greater than any physical wrong. I know this is hard for some to accept when the dangers are great, but the Church is here to combat moral wrongs." The next year, Caffarra argued condom campaigns further exposed society to AIDS because "the means of protection are far from reliable". On 24 August 2005 Caffarra held the central intervention "Freedom as liberation" at the annual Rimini Meeting of Communion and Liberation. Subsequently, he and Marcello Pera presented the Ratzinger's book L'Europa di Benedetto nella crisi delle culture. Cardinal In the consistory of 24 March 2006, Pope Benedict XVI named Caffarra Cardinal-Priest of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini. On 7 May 2006 he was made a member of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples and the Executive Committee of the Pontifical Council for the Family. He was identified at the time as "a strong conservative" voice for the opposition of the Catholic Church to the modern world and one of Benedict XVI's less centrist appointments to the College of Cardinals. In a note Caffarra published on 14 February 2010, he wrote "public officials who openly support same-sex marriage cannot consider themselves to be Catholic". He said: "It is impossible for the Catholic faith and support for putting homosexual unions on equal footing with marriage to coexist in one's conscience – the two contradict each other." He participated as a cardinal elector in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis. Pope Francis named him to participate in the Synod on the Family in October 2014, in advance of which Caffarra authored an essay that argued that Catholics who divorce and remarry must be denied access to the Eucharist because their situation "is in objective contradiction with that bond of love that unites Christ and the Church, which is signified and actualized by the Eucharist". Allowing them access would mean the Church recognize their extramarital sexual relations as legitimate and contradict Church doctrine on the indissolubility of marriage. When accused of opposing Pope Francis with that essay, he called the statement a "slander" and said he would rather be charged with taking a lover than harboring views not shared by the pope. On 26 September 2015, Pope Francis appointed Caffarra to a five-year term as a member of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. His resignation as archbishop was accepted on 27 October 2015. In September 2016, Caffarra and three other cardinals publicly asked Pope Francis to clarify five points of doctrine in the Pope's apostolic exhortation, Amoris laetitia. They issued this public letter after the Pope did not reply to the same query made privately. In June 2017, Caffarra wrote on behalf of the four asking Francis for an audience to discuss their questions. He said that varying interpretations were producing inconsistency: "What is sin in Poland is good in Germany, that what is prohibited in the Archdiocese of Philadelphia is permitted in Malta." References External links unofficial collection of Cardinal Caffarra's speeches 1938 births 2017 deaths People from Busseto Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore alumni Roman Catholic archbishops of Bologna 21st-century Italian cardinals 21st-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops Pontifical Council for the Family International Theological Commission Cardinals created by Pope Benedict XVI Pontifical Gregorian University alumni 20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops

Moen is the administrative centre of Målselv Municipality in Troms og Finnmark county, Norway. The village of Moen is located in the Målselvdalen valley about north of the village of Andselv and Bardufoss Airport. The village has a population (2017) of 847 which gives the village a population density of . The village is lies along the Målselva river and the European route E6 crosses through the village with the Olsborg area in the north and the Moen area in the south. Most of the shops and schools are located in Olsborg, while the municipal offices are located in Moen. Målselv Church is located about north of the village. References Villages in Troms Målselv Populated places of Arctic Norway

The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton, New Brunswick, from May 19–28. It was the 88th annual Memorial Cup competition and determined the major junior ice hockey champion of the Canadian Hockey League (CHL). The host team Moncton Wildcats were the only team guaranteed a spot in the tournament. The other teams were the champions of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), the Peterborough Petes; the Western Hockey League (WHL) champions, the Vancouver Giants; and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL)'s Quebec Remparts, who were runners-up in the QMJHL final to the champion Wildcats. The Remparts won the Memorial Cup, defeating the Wildcats 6–2 in the first all-QMJHL final in tournament history. It also marked the first time in Memorial Cup history that the winning team was neither the host nor a league champion. Round-robin standings Rosters Schedule Round robin Playoff round Tie breaker Semi-final Championship game Leading scorers Leading goaltenders Award winners Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy (MVP): Alexander Radulov, Quebec George Parsons Trophy (Sportsmanship): Jerome Samson, Moncton Hap Emms Memorial Trophy (Goaltender): Cedrick Desjardins, Quebec Ed Chynoweth Trophy (Leading Scorer): Gilbert Brule, Vancouver All-star team Goal: Cedrick Desjardins, Quebec Defence: Paul Albers, Vancouver; Michal Sersen, Quebec Forwards: Alexander Radulov, Québec; Gilbert Brule, Vancouver; Adam Pineault, Moncton The road to the cup All series are best-of-seven WHL playoffs For regular season final standings and other stats, see 2005–06 WHL season. OHL playoffs For regular season final standings and other stats, see 2005–06 OHL season. QMJHL playoffs For regular season final standings and other stats, see 2005–06 QMJHL season. Note: teams cross over between conferences for the final four. References External links Memorial Cup Canadian Hockey League Memorial Cup 2006 Memorial Cup tournaments Memorial Cup 2006 Memorial Cup 2006 2006 in New Brunswick May 2006 sports events in North America

Josimar Melo (born 1954 in Recife, Brazil), is a food & wine journalist for the major Brazilian daily newspaper, Folha de S.Paulo. He owns and directs the gastronomic website Basilico and contributes to several publications in Brazil and abroad. A former student of Architecture in University of São Paulo, he teaches History of Gastronomy at Anhembi Morumbi University, also in São Paulo. In 1995 he created the main gastronomic event in Brazil at the time, “Boa Mesa”, which was sold in 2000. He is the president of the South American jury for the World's 50 Best Restaurants, chosen annually by Restaurant Magazine. Among his books are Guia Josimar Melo (first published in 1992; a comprehensive gourmet guide of São Paulo, yearly updated ); A Cerveja ("The Beer"); and Berinjela se Escreve com J (a lexicon for the correct spelling of around 10,000 gastronomy-related words in several idioms). References Brazilian journalists 1954 births Living people Brazilian columnists People from Recife

Wine has been produced in the United States since the 1500s, with the first widespread production beginning in New Mexico in 1628. Today, wine production is undertaken in all fifty states, with California producing 84 percent of all US wine. The North American continent is home to several native species of grape, including Vitis labrusca, Vitis riparia, Vitis rotundifolia, and Vitis vulpina, but the wine-making industry is based almost entirely on the cultivation of the European Vitis vinifera, which was introduced by European settlers. With more than under vine, the United States is the fourth-largest wine producing country in the world, after Italy, Spain, and France. History The first Europeans to explore North America, a Viking expedition from Greenland, called it Vinland because of the profusion of grape vines they found. The earliest wine made in what is now the United States was produced between 1562 and 1564 by French Huguenot settlers from Scuppernong grapes at a settlement near Jacksonville, Florida. In the early American colonies of Virginia and the Carolinas, wine-making was an official goal laid out in the founding charters. However, settlers discovered that the wine made from the various native grapes had flavors which were unfamiliar and which they did not like. This led to repeated efforts to grow the familiar European Vitis vinifera varieties, beginning with the Virginia Company exporting French vinifera vines with French vignerons to Virginia in 1619. These early plantings met with failure as native pest and vine disease ravaged the vineyards. In what would become the Southwestern United States the Spanish Kingdoms of Las Californias and Santa Fe de Nuevo México had missions that were planting vineyards, the traditions of which remain in the modern day California and New Mexico wine industries. New Mexico wine developed first in 1629 making it the oldest wine producing region in the United States, and Mission grapes were being grown for California wine by 1680. In 1683, William Penn planted a vineyard of French vinifera in Pennsylvania; it may have interbred with a native Vitis labrusca vine to create the hybrid grape Alexander. One of the first commercial wineries in the United States was founded in 1787 by Pierre Legaux in Pennsylvania. A settler in Indiana in 1806 produced wine made from the Alexander grape. Today, French-American hybrid grapes are the staples of wine production on the East Coast of the United States. On November 21, 1799, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a bill to establish a commercial vineyard and winery. The vinedresser for the vineyard was John James Dufour, formerly of Vevey, Switzerland. The vineyard was located overlooking the Kentucky River in Jessamine County in what is known as Blue Grass country of central Kentucky. Dufour named it First Vineyard on November 5, 1798. The vineyard's current address in 5800 Sugar Creek Pike, Nicholasville, Kentucky. The first wine from First Vineyard was consumed by subscribers to the vineyard at John Postelthwaite's house on March 21, 1803. Two 5-gallon oak casks of wine were taken to President Thomas Jefferson in Washington, D. C., in February 1805. The vineyard continued until 1809, when a killing freeze in May destroyed the crop and many vines. The Dufour family abandoned Kentucky, and migrated west to Vevay, Indiana, a center of a Swiss-immigrant community. In California, the first major vineyard and winery was established in 1769 by the Franciscan missionary Junípero Serra near San Diego. Later missionaries carried vines northward; Sonoma's first vineyard was planted around 1805. California has two native grape varieties, but they make very poor quality wine. The California Wild Grape (Vitis californicus) does not produce wine-quality fruit, although it sometimes is used as rootstock for wine grape varieties. The missionaries used the Mission grape. (In South America, this grape is known as criolla or "colonialized European".) Although a Vitis vinifera variety, it is a grape of "very modest" quality. Jean-Louis Vignes was one of the early settlers to use a higher quality vinifera in his vineyard near Los Angeles. The first winery in the United States to become commercially successful was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio, in the mid-1830s by Nicholas Longworth. He made a sparkling wine from Catawba grapes. By 1855, Ohio had 1500 acres in vineyards, according to travel writer Frederick Law Olmsted, who said it was more than in Missouri and Illinois, which each had 1100 acres in wine. German immigrants from the late 1840s had been instrumental in building the wine industry in those states. In the 1860s, vineyards in the Ohio River Valley were attacked by black rot. This prompted several wine-makers to move north to the Finger Lakes region of western New York. During this time, the Missouri wine industry, centered on the German colony in Hermann, was expanding rapidly along both shores of the Missouri River west of St. Louis. By the end of the century, the state was second to California in wine production. In the late 19th century, the phylloxera epidemic in the West and Pierce's disease in the East ravaged the American wine industry. Prohibition in the United States began when the state of Maine became the first state to go completely dry in 1846. Nationally, Prohibition was implemented after ratification by the states of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920, which forbade the manufacturing, sale and transport of alcohol. Exceptions were made for sacramental wine used for religious purposes, and some wineries were able to maintain minimal production under those auspices, but most vineyards ceased operations. New Mexico was one such region, due to the region's long history of wine making and religious traditions, monks and nuns in New Mexico were able to save long-standing New Mexican sacramental and leisure wine grape lineages. Other parts of the country resorted to bootlegging, home wine-making also became common, allowed through exemptions for sacramental wines and production for home use. Following the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, operators tried to revive the American wine-making industry, which was nearly ended. Many talented wine-makers had died, vineyards had been neglected or replanted with table grapes, and Prohibition had changed Americans' taste in wines. During the Great Depression, consumers demanded cheap "jug wine" (so-called dago red) and sweet, fortified (high alcohol) wine. Before Prohibition, dry table wines outsold sweet wines by three to one, but afterward, the ratio of demand changed dramatically. As a result, by 1935, 81% of California's production was sweet wines. For decades, wine production was low and limited. Leading the way to new methods of wine production was research conducted at the University of California, Davis, and at some of the state universities in New York. Faculty at the universities published reports on which varieties of grapes grew best in which regions, held seminars on wine-making techniques, consulted with grape growers and wine-makers, offered academic degrees in viticulture, and promoted the production of quality wines. In the 1970s and 1980s, success by Californian wine-makers in the northern part of the state helped to secure foreign investment from other wine-making regions, most notably the Champenois of France. Wine-makers also cultivated vineyards in Oregon and Washington, on Long Island in New York, and numerous other new locales. Americans became more educated about wines, and increased their demand for high-quality wine. All 50 states now have some acreage in vineyard cultivation. By 2004, 668 million gallons (25.3 million hectoliters) of wine were consumed in the United States. Today, the U.S. produces over 800 million gallons of wine a year, of which California produces more than 84%, followed by Washington, New York, Pennsylvania, and Oregon. In the second decade of the 21st century, the US wine industry faces the growing challenges of competition from international exports and managing domestic regulations on interstate sales and shipment of wine. Wine regions There are nearly 3,000 commercial vineyards in the United States, and at least one winery in each of the 50 states. West Coast – More than 90% of the total American wine production occurs in the states of California, Washington, and Oregon. Southwestern United States – Notably New Mexico and Arizona Rocky Mountain Region – Notably Idaho and Colorado Southern United States – Notably Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama Midwestern United States – Notably Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Missouri Great Lakes region – Notably Michigan, New York, and Ohio East Coast of the United States – Notably Maryland, eastern Long Island in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida Production by state Production of still wine per state in 2016 was as follows: Appellation system The early American appellation system was based on the political boundaries of states and counties. In September 1978, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (now Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau) developed regulations to establish American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) based on distinct climate and geographical features. In June 1980, the Augusta AVA in Missouri was established as the first American Viticultural Area under the new appellation system. For the sake of wine labeling purposes, the use of state and county appellations were grandfathered in and are still used often in lieu of AVAs. There are 269 distinct AVAs designated under U.S. law as of August 2023. Appellation labeling laws In order to have an AVA appear on a wine label, at least 85% of the grapes used to produce the wine must have been grown in the AVA. For a state or county appellation to appear on the wine label, 75% of the grapes used must be from that state or county. Some states have stricter requirements. For example, California requires 100% of the grapes used to be from California for a wine labeled as such, and Washington requires 95% of the grapes in a Washington wine be grown in Washington. If grapes are from two or three contiguous counties or states, a label can have a multi-county or multi-state designation so long as the percentages used from each county or state are specified on the label. American wine or United States is a rarely used appellation that classifies a wine made from anywhere in the United States, including Puerto Rico and Washington, D.C. Wines with this designation are similar to the French wine vin de table, and can not include a vintage year. By law, this is the only appellation allowed for bulk wines exported to other counties. Semi-generic wines U.S. laws formerly allowed American made wines to be labeled as "American Burgundy" or "California champagne", even though these names are restricted in Europe. U.S. laws required usage to include the qualifying area of origin to go with these semi-generic names. Other semi-generic names in the United States include Claret, Chablis, Chianti, Madeira, Malaga, Marsala, Moselle, Port, Rhine wine, Sauternes (often spelled on U.S. wine labels as Sauterne or Haut Sauterne), Sherry, and Tokay. The practice largely ceased in 2006 with the Wine Trade Agreement, though brands that were already using the terms can continue the practice, considered grandfathered in. Other U.S. labeling laws For bottles labeled with a varietal, at least 75% of the grapes used to make the wine must be of that varietal. In Oregon, the requirement is 90% for certain varietals, such as pinot noir. At least 95% of the wine must be from a particular vintage for that year to appear on the label. Prior to the early 1970s, all grapes had to be from the vintage year. Additionally, all labels must list the alcohol content based on percentage by volume, state that the wine contains sulfites, and carry the Surgeon General's warning about alcohol consumption. Distribution Following the repeal of Prohibition, the United States federal government allowed each state to regulate its own production and sale of alcohol. For the majority of states, this led to the development of a three-tier distribution system between the producer, wholesaler, and consumer. Depending on the state, there are some exceptions, with wineries allowed to sell directly to consumers on site at the winery or to ship wine across state lines. Some states allow interstate sales through e-commerce. In the 2005 case Granholm v. Heald, the Supreme Court of the United States struck down state laws that banned interstate shipments but allowed in-state sales. This Supreme Court decision meant that states could decide to allow both out-of-state wine sales and in-state sales, or ban both altogether. Convenience stores and retail stores are large distributors of wine, with over 175,000 outlets that sell wine across the United States. In addition, there are around 332,000 other locations (bars, restaurants, etc.) that sell wine, contributing to the $30+ billion in annual sales over the past three years. In 2010, the average monthly per-store sales of wine jumped to nearly $12,000 from $9,084 in 2009. The average gross margin dollars from wine increased to $3,324 from $2,616 in the year prior, with gross margin percentages up to an average 28.2 percent in 2010, versus 27 percent in 2009. Largest producers , the largest producers of wine in the U.S. are: E & J Gallo Winery - 75 million cases sold per year The Wine Group - 57 million cases sold per year Constellation Brands - 51 million cases sold per year Trinchero Family Estates - 19 million cases sold per year Treasury Wine Estates - 15 million cases sold per year Bronco Wine Company - 10 million cases sold per year Delicato Family Wines - 9.2 million cases sold per year Ste. Michelle Wine Estates - 9 million cases sold per year Jackson Family Wines - 6 million cases sold per year Concha y Toro - 2.75 million cases sold per year See also History of wine List of wine-producing regions Winemaking Agriculture in the United States References Further reading Clarke, Oz. Oz Clarke's New Encyclopedia of Wine. NY: Harcourt Brace, 1999. Johnson, Hugh. Vintage: The Story of Wine. NY: Simon & Schuster, 1989. Taber, George M. Judgement of Paris: California vs. France and the Historic 1976 Paris Tasting that Revolutionized Wine. NY: Scribner, 2005. External links Appellation America.com U.S. wine region and AVA portal All American Wineries U.S. winery and vineyard guide Free the Grapes: State wine shipment laws Doubtless as Good: Thomas Jefferson's Dream for American Wine Fulfilled An online exhibition from the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution American cuisine Wine Wine by country

Sir Philip Stuart Milner-Barry (20 September 1906 – 25 March 1995) was a British chess player, chess writer, World War II codebreaker and civil servant. He represented England in chess both before and after World War II. He worked at Bletchley Park during World War II, and was head of "Hut 6", a section responsible for deciphering messages which had been encrypted using the German Enigma machine. He was one of four leading codebreakers at Bletchley to petition the then-Prime Minister Winston Churchill directly for more resources for their work. After the war he worked in the Treasury, and later administered the British honours system. In chess, he represented England in international tournaments, and lent his name to four opening variations. Early life and education Born in Hendon, London, Philip Stuart was the second of six children to a schoolteacher, Edward Leopold Milner-Barry, who died in 1917, and his wife, Edith Mary. A talented chess player, he won the first British Boys' Championship in 1923. He was a pupil at Cheltenham College, and won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained firsts in classics and moral sciences. He represented Cambridge in chess. At Cambridge, he befriended another chess player, C.H.O'D. (Hugh) Alexander, and composed a number of chess puzzles. Between 1929 and 1938 he was a city stockbroker, although he was unhappy with the work. From 1938, he was the chess correspondent for The Times, succeeded in 1945 by Harry Golombek. Early chess contributions He made his debut in international-class chess at the strong London 1932 tournament, which World Champion Alexander Alekhine won. Milner-Barry's best results in international competition were achieved in three straight years at the Margate tournaments from 1937 to 1939, and at Hastings 1938. In all four events he finished just above the middle against strong fields, with performance ratings (as calculated by Chessmetrics) between 2538 and 2565. This places him at a solid Grandmaster standard, although he never received this title. He reached as high as No. 65 in the world between June and August 1941, according to Chessmetrics, which ranks historical chess performances retrospectively, using modern algorithms. He represented England in chess, and played in the international Chess Olympiads of 1937 and 1939. The latter tournament, held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, coincided with Britain's declaration of war on Germany in September 1939. Milner-Barry, with teammates who included Hugh Alexander (at that time the British chess champion) and Harry Golombek, abandoned the tournament unfinished, and returned to Britain. His full Olympiad results are listed later in the article. Bletchley Park Upon their return, all three soon joined the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. Milner-Barry was recruited by mathematician Gordon Welchman, who had been his contemporary at Trinity College; in turn Milner-Barry recruited Hugh Alexander. Arriving in early 1940, he joined Welchman's "Hut 6" section, whose task was to solve the Enigma cipher machine as used by the German Army and Air Force. In 1993, Milner-Barry wrote that "to this day I could not claim that I fully understood how the machine worked, let alone what was involved in the problems of breaking and reading the Enigma cipher". Nonetheless, with his knowledge of the German language, he made a study of the decrypts and found that they contained stereotyped patterns and forms of address that could be exploited as "cribs" – reliable guesses for the plain language message that matched a given piece of encrypted text. Finding reliable cribs was a critical task for Hut 6, as Enigma was broken primarily with the aid of "bombes", large electromechanical machines which automatically searched for parts of the correct settings. Bombes were reliant on a suitable crib in order to succeed. In autumn 1940, Milner-Barry was put in charge of the "Crib Room". He was billeted with Alexander, who was working in Hut 8, the counterpart to Hut 6 working on German Naval Enigma. Their close friendship let them easily resolve the competing needs of their sections for the limited available bombe time. By October 1941, he was deputy head of Hut 6 under Welchman. At this time, Bletchley Park was experiencing a shortage of clerical staff which was delaying the work on Enigma, and the management of GCCS appeared unable to obtain the resources needed. This affected both Hut 6 and Hut 8, which was run by mathematician Alan Turing with Hugh Alexander as his deputy. Together, Welchman, Milner-Barry, Turing and Alexander bypassed the chain of command and wrote a memorandum directly to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, outlining their difficulties. It fell to Milner-Barry to deliver the message to 10 Downing Street in person, on 21 October 1941. The next day, Churchill responded, "Action this day: Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." Within a month their needs were being met. In autumn 1943, Milner-Barry took over as head of Hut 6, which by that time had grown to over 450 staff, Welchman having been appointed the Assistant Director of Mechanisation at Bletchley Park. He remained in charge until the end of the war, presiding over a number of technical challenges presented by the introduction of extra security devices to the German Enigma, including the Enigma Uhr and a rewireable "reflector" rotor. His entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography notes that, "although he increasingly felt that Hut 6 was on the verge of losing the ability to decode Enigma, it held on until the end of the war, and this was due in no small part to his gifted leadership." The official history of Hut 6, written immediately after the end of World War II, comments on his early "most vital technical achievement" in finding cribs, and on his "administrative and diplomatic talents" in his later role as head of the section. After World War II Milner-Barry joined the Treasury in 1945 with the grade of Principal. In 1947, he married Thelma Tennant Wells, with whom he had a son and two daughters. The same year, he was promoted to Assistant Secretary, and Under-secretary in 1954. Apart from a stint in the Ministry of Health from 1958 to 1960, he remained with the Treasury until 1966, when, aged 60, he had reached the normal retirement age for the civil service. He was persuaded instead to carry on as a ceremonial officer administering the honours system. In this role, he supported the knighthoods of P. G. Wodehouse and Noël Coward. Milner-Barry eventually retired in 1977. He was appointed OBE in 1946 for his work in World War II, CB in 1962, and KCVO in 1975. Later chess contributions He had also continued to play chess, competing in the 10th Chess Olympiad and 12th Chess Olympiad in 1952 and 1956. The 1956 Olympiad trip to Moscow was risky, since Britain and the USSR, which had been allies during World War II, were by then locked into the Cold War, and Milner-Barry's wartime codebreaking knowledge would have been of great interest to the Soviets; the very fact that Britain had broken German codes on a massive scale was kept secret until 1974, when Frederick Winterbotham's book The Ultra Secret was published. He placed second in the British Chess Championship at Hastings 1953 (finishing behind only Daniel Yanofsky), with a score of 8/11; this would be his best result in British Championships. He was president of the British Chess Federation between 1970 and 1973, competed in the British Championship as late as 1978, and was still competing in club and county-level tournaments and matches into his 80s. His obituary in The Independent recalled his "savagely effective attacking style, honed to perfection through a series of 'serious friendly games' against his old rival Hugh Alexander". In 1972, George Koltanowski wrote that, "his style was very pleasing to spectators because he was always looking for dangerous continuations and quite often he found them!" His name is associated with four chess opening variations: Milner-Barry Variation of the Nimzo-Indian Defence (ECO E33): 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.Qc2 Nc6 Milner-Barry Gambit in the French Defence (ECO C02): 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5 c5 4.c3 Nc6 5.Nf3 Qb6 6.Bd3 cxd4 7.cxd4 Bd7 8.0-0!? Nxd4 9.Nxd4 Qxd4 10.Nc3 Milner-Barry Variation in the Petroff Defence (ECO C42): 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nxe5 d6 4.Nf3 Nxe4 5.Qe2 Qe7 6.d3 Nf6 7.Bg5 Nbd7 Milner-Barry Variation in the King's Gambit (ECO C31): 1.e4 e5 2.f4 d5 3.Nc3 Olympiad results Milner-Barry's detailed results while competing for England in chess Olympiads are as follows: Stockholm 1937: board 3, 3/9 (+2−5=2) Buenos Aires 1939: board 3, 4/5 (+3−0=2) Helsinki 1952: board 3, 5½/12 (+2−3=7) Moscow 1956: board 4, 6/12 (+5−5=2) Overall, he scored (+12−13=13), 18½/38, for 48.7 per cent. Final years In 1985, Milner-Barry fiercely defended the reputation of Gordon Welchman, who had come under posthumous criticism for publishing details about the wartime work of Hut 6. In 1992, echoing his wartime visit to 10 Downing Street, Milner-Barry was a member of a party who delivered a petition to the Prime Minister calling on the government to help preserve Bletchley Park, which was then under threat from demolition. He died on 25 March 1995 in Lewisham Hospital, London. A memorial service was held for him at Westminster Abbey on 15 June. There is a conference room named after him at the Civil Service Club, 13 – 15 Great Scotland Yard, London SW1A 2HJ. References External links The Papers of Sir (Philip) Stuart Milner-Barry held at Churchill Archives Centre Milner-Barry and his Attack West London Chess Club Gazette February 1946 (PDF) Remembering Sir Stuart Milner-Barry 1906 births 1995 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge British chess players Civil servants in HM Treasury Civil servants in the Ministry of Health (United Kingdom) Bletchley Park people People educated at Cheltenham College British non-fiction writers British chess writers English stockbrokers People from Hendon Chess theoreticians Chess Olympiad competitors Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order Companions of the Order of the Bath Officers of the Order of the British Empire British male writers Foreign Office personnel of World War II 20th-century chess players 20th-century English businesspeople Male non-fiction writers

Josh Caterer (born April 12, 1972) is an American, Chicago-area musician, best known as the lead singer, lead guitarist, and principal songwriter of pop-punk band Smoking Popes, which he founded in 1991 with his older brother Matt and younger brother Eli. Josh has also written and recorded Christian and gospel music as a solo artist and with the pop-punk band Duvall. In 2015, he founded the blues band Jackson Mud Band, which has released one full-length album called "Stranger Blues". Early life Josh Caterer grew up in Carpentersville, Illinois, where he attended Kings Road Elementary School and Carpentersville Middle School. Later, his family moved to Lake In The Hills IL, where he attended nearby H.D. Jacobs High School, graduating in 1990. After graduation, he held several menial jobs such as gas station cashier and machine operator at a plastics company. Career Smoking Popes formed in 1991 and began playing small local venues around the Chicago suburbs. Their first album Get Fired was released in 1993 by Chicago indie label Johann's Face Records. An opening spot for Green Day drew the attention of major labels, and in 1995 they signed to Capitol Records, which released their second album Born To Quit. The single from that album, "Need You Around", was included on the soundtrack to the hit movie Clueless and the band's career took off. They started touring North America and Europe as a headlining act, also opening for such artists as Morrissey, Cheap Trick, Goo Goo Dolls, Violent Femmes, Foo Fighters and Tripping Daisy. During the making of their third album Destination Failure, Josh began struggling with substance abuse and went through a period of personal upheaval and spiritual searching. His songwriting, which until then had focused mostly on the ups and downs of romantic love, began to take on a deeper and more profound quality, which is reflected in the lyrics on that album. Destination Failure was released in 1997 to critical acclaim, but achieved only moderate commercial success. Eventually, after a collapse due to a cocaine overdose at an all-night party his spiritual search intensified, and reading C.S. Lewis's Mere Christianity helped lead him to embrace Christianity in 1998. Shortly after his conversion, the Smoking Popes broke up, and Caterer became heavily involved in his church, also working at World Relief, a charitable, non-profit organization. He released a five-song EP of acoustic gospel music called Why Me. In 2001 he returned to the rock scene, founding the Christian rock band Duvall, which included other former members of the Smoking Popes. In November 2005, the Smoking Popes reunited for a sell-out show at the Chicago club The Metro. They embarked on a U.S. tour in early 2006 with the band Bayside and released a new album called Stay Down in July 2008. Since then, Smoking Popes have released two more full-length albums, This Is Only A Test in 2011 and Into The Agony in 2018. In October 2020, Josh played a virtual concert at the Hideout in Chicago, which was later released as a live solo album called The Hideout Sessions. Church musician From 2011 to 2015, Josh served as director of worship at the Village Church of Barrington, Illinois, then from 2015 to 2019 as Pastor of Worship and Music Ministries at Calvary Memorial Church in Oak Park, Illinois. Since July 2019, he's been serving as Pastor of Worship at Village Bible Church in Sugar Grove Illinois. Personal life Josh lives in Aurora, Illinois with his wife, Stefanie, and their two children, Elliot and Phoebe. References External links Interview with Josh Caterer by Harvest Bible Chapel Josh Caterer playing at North Central College Union: I Know You Love Me Megan 1972 births Living people American punk rock guitarists American male singer-songwriters American punk rock singers Singers from Chicago American rock songwriters Smoking Popes members Guitarists from Chicago American male guitarists 21st-century American singer-songwriters Singer-songwriters from Illinois

Dreaming #11 is the second EP by guitarist Joe Satriani, released on November 1, 1988 through Relativity Records and reissued on May 27, 1997 through Epic Records. The EP reached No. 42 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and remained on that chart for 26 weeks. Its sole studio track, "The Crush of Love", reached No. 6 on Billboard'''s Mainstream Rock chart and was nominated for Best Rock Instrumental Performance at the 1990 Grammy Awards; this being Satriani's second such nomination. The remaining three tracks were recorded live during the Surfing with the Alien (1987) tour. The title track, absent on the EP, would later be released on Satriani's 1993 compilation album Time Machine. Dreaming #11 was certified Gold on August 15, 1991. Critical reception Phil Carter at AllMusic gave Dreaming #11'' 2.5 stars out of five, calling it "something of an oddity" and "A recommended disc for musicians and fans, but not essential to the casual collector." Track listing Personnel Joe Satriani – guitar, keyboard, bass (track 1), remixing, production Jeff Campitelli – drums (track 1) Jonathan Mover – drums (tracks 2–4) Bongo Bob Smith – percussion (track 1), sound replacement Stuart Hamm – bass (tracks 2–4) David Bianco – engineering (tracks 2–4) John Cuniberti – engineering, remixing, production David Plank – engineering assistance Bernie Grundman – mastering Charts Certifications Awards References External links Dreaming #11 at satriani.com In Review: Joe Satriani "Dreaming #11" at Guitar Nine Records Joe Satriani albums 1988 EPs Relativity Records EPs Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance

A tithing or tything was a historic English legal, administrative or territorial unit, originally ten hides (and hence, one tenth of a hundred). Tithings later came to be seen as subdivisions of a manor or civil parish. The tithing's leader or spokesman was known as a tithingman. Etymology The noun tithing breaks down as ten + thing, which is to say, a thing (an assembly) of the households who live in an area that comprises ten hides. Comparable words are Danish herredthing for a hundred, and English husting for a single household. Sound changes in the prehistory of English are responsible for the first part of the word looking so different from the word ten. In the West Germanic dialects which became Old English, n had a tendency to elide when positioned immediately before a th. The noun is not to be confused with the verb to tithe, its present participle tithing, nor the act of tithing, though they partly share the same origin. History The term originated in the 10th century, when a tithing meant the households in an area comprising ten hides. The heads of each of those households were referred to as tithingmen; historically they were assumed to all be males, and older than 12 (an adult, in the context of the time). Each tithingman was individually responsible for the actions and behaviour of all the members of the tithing, by a system known as frankpledge. If a person accused of a crime was not forthcoming, his tithing was fined; if he was not part of the frankpledge, the whole town was subject to the fine. Unlike areas dominated by Wessex, Kent had been settled by Jutes rather than Saxons, and retained elements of its historical identity as a separate and wealthy kingdom into the Middle Ages. While Wessex and Mercia eventually grouped their hundreds into Shires, Kent grouped hundreds into lathes. Sussex, which had also been a separate kingdom, similarly grouped its hundreds into rapes. The different choice of terminology continued to the level of the tithing; in Kent, parts of Surrey, and Sussex, the equivalent term was a borgh, borow, or borough (not to be confused with borough in its more usual sense of a chartered or privileged town); their equivalent to the tithingman was therefore a borsholder, borough-holder or headborough. The Norman Conquest introduced the feudal system, which quickly displaced the importance of the hundred as an administrative unit. With the focus on manorial courts for administration and minor justice, tithings came to be seen as subdivisions of a manor. The later break-down of the feudal system did not detract from this, as the introduction of Justices of the Peace lead to petty sessions displacing many of the administrative and judicial functions of the manorial courts. By the Reformation, civil parishes had replaced the manor as the most important local administrative concept, and tithings came to be seen as a parish subdivision. Frankpledge eventually evolved into both the Jury system and the petty constabulary, but tithings themselves had lost their practical significance, and fell into disuse. Despite this, active tithings continued to be found in some parts of rural England well into the 19th century, and tithings and hundreds have never been formally abolished. References Further reading Duggan, Kenneth F. (2020) "The Limits of Strong Government: Attempts to Control Criminality in Thirteenth-Century England", Historical Research 93:261, pp. 399–419 Anglo-Norse England Anglo-Saxon law Medieval English law English legal terminology Defunct types of subdivision in the United Kingdom Types of administrative division

XML Professional Publisher (XPP) is an automated XML based publishing system that was developed out of a proprietary typesetting system. XPP is a standards-based, content formatting and publishing application for the automatic composition, transformation, and rendering of XML, SGML or tagged ASCII content into high-quality output into PostScript and PDF format. It holds the XML or SGML in its native format and it is able to re-export the data after paper pagination, even if corrections have been made in XPP. The software is used worldwide to produce a wide variety of publications including Technical Documentation, Scientific, Medical Journals (STM) Directory, Dictionary and Legal loose-leaf publishing. XPP was originally, in the early 1980s, a proprietary system which included the software and hardware. It was one of the first systems to combine high speed batch composition with an interactive mode displaying WYSIWYG pages. Originally Xyvision was built using its own display hardware as off-the-shelf hardware at that time was not up to the task of rapidly displaying pages. Over the years as readily available hardware became more powerful, Xyvision moved away from its own hardware to become a software-only vendor. Xyvision was a publicly held company and evolved in 1995 into the privately owned company called XyEnterprise. XyEnterprise currently employs some 80 people to develop and maintain the XPP software as well as supporting its other products, Contenta, an intelligent XML content management system and LiveContent, an information products delivery platform. XyEnterprise was subsequently bought by SDL and in turn SDL merged with RWS. XPP can be used as a stand-alone system or in conjunction with Contenta and LiveContent. Each page within XPP is stored as a separate file, which allows XPP to open up a document at every page and reformat this page as a separate unit. XPP can even compose a single line as a separate unit. The ability to handle pages as individual objects means that it is well suited to loose-leaf publications. The software also has a very active User group which helps communicate back to RWS what the users want to see in the future, and is usually incorporated into successive new versions. Version 9.4 increases the use of CSS to do page layouts as well as the typographic styling introduced at 9.0. References External links RWS XPP Letterpart Ltd XyUser Group Typesetting software

A shaligram, or shaligrama shila (), is a fossilized stone or ammonite collected from the riverbed or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal. It is also considered a form of Vishnu within Hinduism. Legends According to the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, and Shiva Purana, shilagrama shilas originated due to the following chain of events. A king named Vrishadhvaja had been cursed by Surya to endure poverty, due to his reluctance to worship any deity other than Shiva. To regain their lost prosperity, his grandsons Dharmadhvaja and Kusadhvaja performed austerities to appease the goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity. Pleased with the austerities, she granted them prosperity, and the blessing of her being born as their daughters. Accordingly, Lakshmi incarnated as Vedavati, the daughter of Kusadhvaja and Tulasi, the daughter of Dharmadhvaja. Tulasi went to Badarikashrama to perform austerities in order to gain Vishnu as her husband, but was informed by Brahma that she would not get Vishnu as her husband in that life, and would have to marry the danava named Shankhachuda. In his previous birth, Shankhachuda was Sudama, a classmate (gurubandhu) of Krishna, a manifestation of Vishnu residing in Goloka. He had been created out of his body, and was cursed by Radha to be born as a danava. As a result, Shankhachuda was virtuous and pious by nature, and was devoted to Vishnu. He married Tulasi on the command of Brahma, as per the rules of the Gandharva marriage. After Shankhachuda's marriage, the danavas, under his leadership, waged a battle against their natural enemies, the devas, in which they won due to merit of Shankhachuda's virtue. The devas were subsequently driven out of Svarga by the victorious danavas. Demoralised and defeated, the devas approached Vishnu, who told them that Shankhachuda was destined to be killed by Shiva. On being requested by the devas, Shiva, along with his attendants and the devas, waged a battle against the danavas, led by Shankhachuda. However, neither side was able to outpower the other. An unembodied voice told Shiva that by the boon of Brahma, Shankhachuda was invincible in combat as long as he wore his armour, and his wife's chastity was not violated. Hence, Vishnu, assuming the form of an old Brahmin, asked Shankhachuda his armour while begging alms. Shankhachuda donated his armour to him. When he was busy fighting with Shiva, Vishnu, wearing Shankhachuda's armour, assumed the form of Shankhachuda, and cohabited with Tulasi. Thus, Tulasi's chastity was broken, and Shankhachuda was killed by Shiva's trishula, thereby reliving Sudama from the curse. At the moment of Shankhachuda's death, Tulasi became suspicious that the man who was with her at that time was not Shankhachuda. When she discovered that it was Vishnu who had deceived her, she cursed him to become a stone, as she believed that he had been emotionless like a stone in accomplishing the death of his devotee, Shankhachuda, and stealing her chastity, when she was also his devotee. Vishnu consoled Tulasi by stating that it was the result of her austerities performed in the past in order to gain him as her husband, and that she would again become his wife upon casting off her body. Thus, Lakshmi cast off the body of Tulasi, and assumed a new form (which became known by the name of Tulasi). The discarded body of Tulasi was transformed into the Gandaki river, and from her hairs emerged the tulasi shrub. Vishnu, on being cursed by Tulasi, assumed the form of a large rocky mountain known as shaligrama, on the banks of the Gandaki river where vajrakita, a type of worm having teeth as strong as the vajra, carved out various markings on his body. The stones carved by vajrakita which fall down from the surface of that mountain into the Gandaki river, came to be known as the . History Historically, the use of shaligrama shilas in worship can be traced to the time of Adi Shankara through the latter's works. Specifically, his commentary to the verse 1.6.1 in Taittiriya Upanishad, and his commentary to the verse 1.3.14 of the Brahma Sutras, suggest that the use of shaligrama shila in the worship of Vishnu has been a well-known Hindu practice. A good number of false shaligrama shilas, too, remain in circulation. The statue of Narasimha in Guru Narasimha Temple, Saligrama is said to be made completely of saligrama, and is said to be swayambhu (not carved by anyone, but occurred naturally). This seems to be the earliest mention of Saligrama as this temple was constructed prior to the birth of Adi Shankara. Vishnu in the Padmanabhaswamy Temple of Thiruvananthapuram and Badrinath Temple of Garhwal region, and that of Krishna in Krishna Matha of Udupi and Radha Raman Temple of Vrindavana are also believed to be made from shaligrama shilas. Configurations Quoting from sources like Viramitrodaya, Chaturvarga-chintamani, Matsyasukta, Vaishvanara Samhita, Puranasamgraha etc. the Pranatoshani Tantra cites the following varieties of shaligrama shilas on the basis of shape, colour, features of the chakra (imprint of the ammonite shell present on the outer surface or inside the stone, resembling Sudarshana Chakra, the main weapon of Vishnu) and mukha/vadana/dvara (a large aperture resembling an open mouth through which the chakra present within the stone can be seen from outside) and distinct markings like the vanamala (a linear white line running throughout the body of the stone, resembling a garland) ● Keshava: i) Marked with a single chakra, a vanamala and four bindus (circular markings present on the outer surface) of golden hue arranged like a square. ii) Marked with a shankha and chakra on the lower middle portion. Grants prosperity and fulfilment of all desires on being worshipped. ● Hayagriva: i) Blue in colour at the top, shaped like an elephant-goad or the head of a horse, marked with a linear mark present near the chakra and several bindus. ii) Marked with five linear marks, other characteristics being the same before. iii) Marked with a single chakra and a marking resembling a banner. iv) Has both yellow and red colours on its surface, endowed with two chakras, marked with markings resembling ear-rings and gems on the sides, shaped like an elephant-goad or lotus-bud. v) Shaped like a lotus-bud while the mukha shaped like the head of a horse, and marked with a marking resembling a rosary. vi) Green in colour, marked with a single chakra, the left side is elevated like that of a kapinjala bird. Grants knowledge, prosperity and wordly enjoyment on being worshipped. ● Parameshthin: i) Presence of a hole (which does not reach the other side of the stone, otherwise the stone would be unfit for worship) at the top, has a single chakra, marked with the markings resembling a lotus and several bindus. ii) White in colour, has a single chakra and markings resembling a lotus, shaped like a snake's hood/pearl necklace/sphere, the top is perforated and hard. iii) Reddish in colour, circular in shape with a single chakra and linear mark, perforated and hard. iv) Round in shape, yellow in colour with a hole at the top. v) Red/white in colour while the top surface is yellowish and perforated, marked with a single chakra and markings resembling a lotus. Grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Hiranyagarbha : i) The colour is yellow like that of honey and slightly elongated in shape, has several golden linear marks on the body with a crystal-like glow and shaped like the round moon. ii) Black in colour, round in shape, the vadana is glazed, marked with a single chakra and marking resembling srivatsa (a triangular mark on Vishnu's chest) on a of the top surface. Grants prosperity and increase in progeny on being worshipped. ● Chaturbhuja : The colour is blue like that of a rain cloud. It is round in shape and marked with four chakras. Grants fearlessness on being worshipped. ● Gadadhara : Circular in shape, yellow in colour, the chakra is situated towards the left, the middle part is marked with three linear marks, markings resembling a banner, a vajra and elephant-goad are present on it. ● Narayana :i) Shyama (dark colour of lighter tone) in complexion, the chakra is situated at middle portion, marked with a long linear mark, the right side is perforated. ii) The vadana is situated at the middle of the body, within which lies the chakra at the front, endowed with markings resembling ornaments like ear-rings, bracelets and necklaces. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. Lakshminarayana : i) Endowed with a single vadana, four chakras and a vanamala. ii) Circular in shape, the colour is yellow/blue like a fresh rain-cloud, the vadana is glazed and situated towards the left side within which lie four chakras, endowed with markings resembling a banner, a vajra and an elephant-goad, possesses vanamala, the top is raised and has some bindus on its surface. Grants enjoyment, liberation, fulfilment of all desires, four aims of human life (dharma, artha, kama, moksha), redemption from sins on being worshipped. Naranarayana : The chakra is red in colour while the body is green like the tamala tree with patches of golden colouration. Rupinarayana : Markings resembling pestle, gada, shankha are present alongside a single chakra while another marking resembling a bow is situated near the vadana. ● Madhava : With a colour similar to honey, marked with a gada and shankha, the chakra is situated at the middle and is glazed. Grants liberation on being worshipped. ● Govinda : i) Black in colour, shining in appearance, endowed with a single chakra alongside markings resembling a gada on that right side and that resembling a mountain on the left. ii) Black in colour, not much large in size, the central portion is raised upwards, endowed with a large vadana marked with five chakras situated towards the left ● Vishnu : Black in colour, possesses a large chakra, shaped like a gada, a linear mark is present on the top surface near the vadana. Grants liberation on being worshipped. ● Madhusudhana : Golden in colour with a lustrous appearance, has a single chakra and endowed with markings resembling a lotus and a shankha. Destroys enemies on being worshipped. ● Trivikrama : Shyama in colour, triangular in shape with shining appearance, has one or two chakras along with some bindus on the left-side and a linear mark on the right-side . Grants wealth on being worshipped. ● Shridhara : i) The shape is as round like the kadamba flower, endowed with vanamala and five linear marks at the top surface and sides. ii) Green in colour, round in shape with a flat upper surface, endowed with a single glazed chakra and markings resembling a lotus in the middle. iii) Small in size, has two chakras and a vanamala. iv) Glittering like a gem, endowed with a single chakra, vanamala, markings resembling a lotus/banner and another resembling an elephant-goad near the vadana. Grants prosperity to householders on being worshipped. ● Hrishikesha : Shaped like a half moon with a single chakra and also with markings resembling the hair of a boar. ● Padmanabha : Reddish in colour, endowed with a semicircular chakra and markings resembling a lotus and hairs of a mane. Causes poverty and sorrow, hence should not be worshipped. ● Damodara : i) Big in size, the colour is as green as durva grass with a small chakra situated in the middle, a small vadana and a single yellowish linear mark in the middle ii) Endowed with two chakras and a cracked outer surface. Grants auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Sudarshana : i) Green in colour with gliterring appearance, the chakra and markings resembling a gada are situated on the left side while linear markings arranged like a lotus are found on the right side. ii) Black in colour, shaped like a lotus, endowed with a single chakra, a large vadana and lowered middle portion. Destroys all sins and grants results of all types of worship the on being worshipped. ● Vasudeva : White in colour, endowed with a single or two chakras at the dwara. Fulfills all desires on being worshipped. ● Pradyumna : i) Yellow in colour, has a small chakra and markings resembling a makara on the sides and top surface, endowed with many holes. ii) The colour is blue and has a small chakra and small mukha and many holes. Grants prosperity and happiness to householders on being worshipped. ● Aniruddha : i) Blue in colour, round in shape and glazed, has markings resembling a lotus at the top surface and three linear marks near the dvara. ii) Black in colour with a beautifully shaped dwara and having a chakra near the centre, another on the sides and a small chakra at the top surface. iii) Yellow in colour, round in shape. Grants happiness to householders on being worshipped. ● Purushottama : i) Golden in colour with a chakra at the middle portion and a bigger chakra at the front. ii) The colour is as yellow as the atasi flower and endowed with many bindus. iii) With mukhas on all directions (traditionally numbered to ten). Increases prosperity and grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Adhokshaja : Dark black in colour with patches of brown, circular in shape, endowed with a single chakra and red linear marks, maybe large or small in size. Grants auspiciousness to worshippers on being worshipped. ● Achyuta : Has four chakras on right and left sides and two red markings resembling ear-rings at the mukha, also marked with markings resembling shankha, gada, bow, arrow, pestle, banner, white umbrella and a red elephant-goad. ● Upendra : Green in colour with an lustrous appearance, has a glazed body with one or more chakras on the sides. ● Janardana : Has two dwaras; one on the eastern side and another on the western side, and four chakras; two on the top surface and other two in the middle. Grants prosperity and destroys enemies on being worshipped. ● Lakshmijanardana : The colour is blue with one dwara and four chakras. ● Hari : Green in colour, round in shape with one mukha at the top, the lower portion is marked with bindus. Fulfills all desires on being worshipped. ● Ananta: i) Marked with markings resembling the hood of a snake, has 20 red chakras, 14 dwaras and many bindus, has different colours on its bod. ii) The colour is as blue as a rain-cloud, circular in shape, has 27 chakras. Grants four aims of human life and results of all types of worship on being worshipped. ● Yogeshwara : Has a shivalinga like structure on its top surface. Grants redemption from the great sin of brahmahatya on being worshipped. ● Pundarikaksha : Has markings resembling a pair of eyes/lotuses on the left or top surface or sides. Can bring the entire world under control of the worshipper on being worshipped. ● Chaturmukha : Has four linear marks on the sides, and two chakras on the middle portion of the body. ● Yajnamurthi : Has both yellow and red colours on its surface, with a small dwara and two chakras; one at the middle and other on the right side. ● Dattatreya : i) Has white, red and black patches and markings resembling a rosary on the top surface. (Some versions state red and yellow colours) ● Shishumara : Long in shape, with a deep triangular opening and having one or two chakras on the front side and another on the back side. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. ● Hamsa : Shaped like a bow having both blue and white colours on its surface and has a chakra and markings resembling a lotus. Grants only salvation on being worshipped. ● Parahamsa : The colour is blue like the throat of a peacock, with a glazed body and round dwara within which lies a single chakra and a glittering patch resembling the sun on the right side of the chakra. There are also two linear marks forming the shape of a boar on the body. Grants four aims of human life on being worshipped. ● Lakshmipati : Black in colour while the sides or the front portion is blue like a peacock's throat, has a small chakra and large vadana. Grants prosperity and wealth on being worshipped. ● Garudadhvajalakshmipati : Round in shape, has golden marks resembling horns and hoofs on the body and a smooth chakra with black linear marks on it. ● Batapatrashayin : Round in shape with white, copper-red and blue colours on its surface, has a single vadana in the middle, four chakras and three bindus, markings resembling a shankha and a lotus lie to the left and right side of the chakra respectively. ● Vishvambhara : Has 20 chakras on the body. ● Vishvarupa : Circular in shape, has one or five dwaras and many chakras. Bestows children and grandchildren on being worshipped. ● Pitambara : Round like the udder of a cow or a human breast, has a single chakra. Grants happiness on being worshipped. ● Chakrapani : Round in shape and glazed, with a small chakra and many other prints. ● Saptavirashrava : Round in shape with a small chakra and several golden bindus all over the body. Increases all sorts of prosperity on being worshipped. ● Jagadyoni: A single red chakra is present within the dwara. Grants auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Bahurupin : With multiple mukhas and single chakra alongside markings resembling a shankha present inside. Grants salvation on being worshipped. ● Harihara : Has four dwaras and two chakras with a shivanabhi (a special form of shivalinga) like structure on its top surface. Grants prosperity and happiness on being worshipped. ● Swayambhu : Blue in colour with a long and big mukha, and having the body encircled by linear marks. Grants only salvation on being worshipped. ● Shivanarayana : Has two mukhas and chakras. Destroys wealth, property and progeny, hence should not be worshipped. ● Shankaranarayana : Has a shivanabhi like structure either sideways or left side or right side. ● Pitamaha : Has four different dwaras with a chakra in each of them. ● Naramurti : The colour is yellow like the atasi flower with markings resembling a sacred thread on the sides. ● Shesha : Printed with linear marks forming the coiled body of a snake. Although red in colour, it is not considered inauspicious. ● Pralambaghna : Red in colour with the markings resembling the coiled body and hood of a snake. Causes death, hence should not be worshipped. ● Suryamurti : Has 12 different chakras either on the body surface or inside the dwara. Destroys illnesses on being worshipped. ● Haiheya : Has one mukha and multiple markings resembling hoods, out of which two are found on the right side of the dwara, shaped like a lotus petal with a golden mark resembling an arc. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. ● Vishnupanjara : Printed with several linear marks. ● Garuda : i) Shaped like a lotus with three marks one above the other the central line being longer, has four chakras. ii) Printed with markings resembling a pair of wings and having two, three or four golden linear marks on his body, green, blue or white in colour. Destroys all sins on being worshipped. ● Matsya : i) Elongated in shape, the colour is like gold/bell-metal, and marked with three bindus. ii) Elonhated in shape resembling a fish, green in colour with crystal-like glow, endowed with two chakras at the middle portion and three bindus. iii) Has three elongated dwaras each possessing a chakra while another chakra is situated at the posterior end shaped like the tail of a fish, the right side is shaped like a cart, the left side has a linear mark. iv) Has a long dwara at the right side, endowed with three bindus, a single chakra and markings resembling a shankha and lotus v) Shaped like a fish and a has markings resembling an elongated fish. Grants enjoyment, liberation, fulfilment of all desires and auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Kurma : i) Shaped like a tortoise with the eastern side elevated. ii) Green in colour, round in shape resembling a tortoise, the top surface being elevated and endowed with red markings resembling Kaustubha, five circular markings resembling the sun and a chakra. iii) Endowed with structures resembling the feet of a bed on the sides. iv) Endowed with a single chakra, three golden bindus and markings resembling a shankha and a lotus. v) Elongated in shape with the mukha extending from left to right side, and endowed with five circular markings resembling the sun. vi) Triangular in shape like the inflorescence of a snuhi plant with chakras on both sides. vii) Round in shape resembling a tortoise, has both blue and red colours on its surface, has a long dwara and two chakras imprinted sideways at the middle portion of the body. Fulfills all sorts of desires and increases progeny on being worshipped. ● Varaha : i) Blue in colour, big in size, and printed with odd number of chakras and three linear marks. ii) Endowed with even number of chakras, of which at least one is situated on the right side, and vanamala. This last variety is called Lakshmi-Varaha. Grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Narasimha : Has a very large mukha, two chakras and linear marks resembling the mane of a lion. Creates detachment in the mind of the worshipper on being worshipped. Kapilanarasimha : Has three or five bindus, two large chakras in the middle, prominent linear marks, teeth-like projections in the large mukha, circular in shape and tawny in colour like jaggery or lac. Grants liberation, victory in combat, fulfilment of all desires, redemption from sins on being worshipped by a celibate, otherwise causes difficulties and pain. Lakshminarasimha : Has a large mukha, two chakras at the left side, three or five bindus and a vanamala. Grants happiness, liberation and enjoyment to householders on being worshipped. Vidarananarasimha : Has a very large mukha endowed with teeth-like projections and two chakras inside it. Causes fear and inflammation of residence on not being worshipped by a celibate. Sarvatomukhanarasimha : Golden in colour, has multiple mukhas and seven chakras. Patalanarasimha : Has multiple dwaras, multiple chakras (three at the dwara and ten at the sides) and multiple colours. Grants nectar of immortality to monks on being worshipped. Akashanarasimha : Has a large mukha and an elevated chakra in the middle. To be worshipped only by monks. Rakshasanarasimha : Golden in colour, has a large mukha and multiple holes. Causes inflammation of residence, hence should not be worshipped. Jihvanarasimha : Has two large mukhas, two chakras and an elevated front. Causes poverty, hence should not be worshipped. Adhomukhanarasimha : Has three chakras, one inside, other on the top surface and another on the sides. Grants liberation on being worshipped. Jwalanarasimha : Has a small mukha, two chakras and a vanamala. Grants freedom from the world on being worshipped. Mahanarasimha : Has two chakras and very beautiful, prominent linear marks. ● Vamana : i) Round in shape like the kadamba flower, small in size and marked with five linear marks. ii) Small in size with glittering appearance, the shape is circular or triangular like the inflorescence of the snuhi flower, has a chakra on both top and bottom surface with markings resembling the Brahminy kite beside the chakra. iii) Not very small in size, has a single prominent glazedchakra at the centre. iv) The colour is yellow like the atasi flower with an elevated top surface, white bindus at the mukha and an indistinct chakra. v) The colour is blue like the rain-cloud, round like the bilva fruit or seeds of the jujube fruit in shape, has two chakras, a vanamala and a small mukha. This last variety is called Dadhivamana. Grants fulfilment of all desires, happiness, prosperity; increase in property, progeny and wealth of householders on being worshipped. ● Parashurama : Yellow or black in colour and marked with markings resembling an axe, has a chakra on either left or right side and markings resembling teeth, either at the top surface or on the sides. Prevents untimely death on being worshipped. ● Ramachandra : The colour is green like the durva grass, endowed with a single chakra, markings resembling a staff on the top surface and two linear marks on the sides. Ranarama : Neither too large nor too small in size, circular in shape, endowed with two chakras and markings resembling an arrow and a quiver. Rajarajeshwara : Neither too large nor too small in size, circular in shape, endowed with two or seven chakras and perforated with holes that appear to have been created by arrows, has markings resembling an umbrella, an arrow and a quiver. Grants wealth and kingship on being worshipped. Sitarama : The colour is blue like a rain-cloud, has one or two dwaras, four chakras out of which one is situated at the left side, a vanamala and markings resembling a bow, an arrow, an elephant-goad, a banner, an umbrella and a chamara (fly-whisk made of yak-tail hair). Grants victory and prosperity on being worshipped. Dashakanthakulantakarama : Oval in shape like a chicken's egg, green in colour, the top surface is elevated, has two linear marks at the dwara and a marking resembling a bow at the sides. Virarama : Has a glazed chakra appearing like a lotus filament and markings resembling a bow, an arrow, a quiver, an ear-ring and a garland. Grants prosperity on being worshipped. Vijayarama : Has a single chakra appearing like a lotus filament, endowed with red bindus, a gaping vadana and markings resembling a bow, an arrow and a quiver. Ramamurti : Has a single chakra within the vadana, black in colour. Grants the ability to compose poetry on being worshipped. Dustarama : The colour is blue like a rain-cloud, has markings resembling a bow and an arrow on the top surface and that resembling hooves at the sides. ● Krishna : i) Black in colour, endowed with a single chakra at the dwara and a vanamala. ii) Has yellow patches, the dwara is situated at the middle, the top surface resembles a tortoise shell, endowed with yellow bindus at the sides. Grants wealth, crops, happiness and redemption from sins on being worshipped. Balakrisha : Has a long mukha and bindus on both top and bottom surface. Grants progeny and prosperity on being worshipped. Gopala : Deep black in colour, large in size, endowed with two chakras, a vanamala, triangular markings resembling shrivatsa, white teeth-like structure at the sides within the mukha resembling a smile. Grants property, crops and wealth on being worshipped. Madanagopala : A Gopala shila endowed with additional attributes - markings resembling full-bloomed lotuses on the sides, a garland and an ear-ring. Grants children, grandchildren, wealth and control over the world on being worshipped. Santanagopala : A Gopala shila whose mukha is shaped like a half-moon. Increases progeny on being worshipped. Govardhanagopala : Circular in shape, the front portion is lowered, endowed with bindus of silvery hue alongside markings resembling a staff and a garland on the sides, another resembling a venu at the mukha and a long linear mark on the right side. Grants fulfilment of all desires, destruction of all enemies, redemption from all sins, cattle and crops on being worshipped. Lakshmigopala : A Gopala shila which is oval in shape like a chicken's egg, endowed with markings resembling a venu, an ear-ring and a country plough. Grants progeny, spouse, property, enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. Kaliyamardana : The sides are large and endowed with golden linear marks and three small bindus. Grants destruction of enemies, progeny and wealth on being worshipped. Syamantahari : The colour is white like the blade of a sword, has a large chakra, the top surface is endowed with a vanamala and triangular markings resembling shrivatsa. Increases progeny and fame on being worshipped. Chanuramardana : Green in colour with two red bindus, endowed with linear markings on both left and right sides, giving a resemblance to a fist. Destroys all enemies on being worshipped. Kamsamardana : Blue in colour, having a different colour either at the front or on a rear side. ● Sankarshana : Red in colour, has two chakras joined with each other on the top side, the eastern side is perforated. Grants happiness to householders on being worshipped. Balabhadra : Marked with seven chakras. Grants children and grandchildren on being worshipped. Balarama : Has five linear marks on the top side and markings resembling a bow and an arrow on the rear sides. Grants progeny on being worshipped. ● Buddha : Has a very small mukha but without any chakra. It is also called Nivita (hidden) Buddha. Grants the ultimate position (parama pada) on being worshipped. ● Kalki : i) The colour is black, has six chakras and markings resembling a sword/dagger over the mukha on the top surface. ii) Shaped like the face of a horse and marked with three chakras. Destroys all evil caused by kaliyuga on being worshipped. More detailed classification is provided in the Meru Tantra and in the book Shalagrama Kosha compiled by S. K. Ramachandra Rao from a manuscript named Shalagrama Pariksha written by a Telugu brahmin named Anupasimha and unpublished sections of the Sritattvanidhi dealing with shaligrama shilas. Use Shaligrama shilas are used as non-anthropomorphic representations of Vishnu alongside Dvaravati shilas, similar to the use of yantra and kalasha in the veneration of Devi and linga and Baneshvara shilas in the veenration of Shiva. The Pranatoshani Tantra states that worship of all deities can be conducted on a shaligrama shila. The Puranas unequivocally state that worship of Vishnu done through a shaligrama shila yields greater merit than that done through a murti (idol). Unlike murtis, shaligrama shilas can be worshipped in individual residencies alongside temples, can be carried away from one place to another easily and can be worshipped as long as the chakra inside it has not been broken or cracked. Apart from the traditional upacharas (articles of worship) whose number varies from five, 10, 16 to 18, worship of a shaligrama shila requires only tulasi leaves and water poured from a (special conchshell) for ablution compared to an murti which requires upacharas of monetary value like robes and jewellery. Hence worship of shaligrama shila can be afforded by people even in times of hardship and distress as the only mode of worship. Hindus hailing from South India bedeck idols of Vishnu with a garland made of 108 shaligrama shilas. Bengali Hindus observe a ceremony called Svastyayana in which 108 or 1008 tulasi leaves anointed with sandalwood paste are offered on a shaligrama shila with the aim of healing diseases or being delivered from troubles. This can be accompanied by Chandipatha (ritualistic recitation of the Devi Mahatmya) once, thrice or five times; worshipping one or four clay Shivalingas and chanting the mantras of Durga and Vishnu 108 or 1008 times. Literature The Pranatoshani Tantra states that: The merit gained by worshipping Vishnu in a Shalagrama shila once is equivalent to that of conducting a thousand Rajasuya yajnas and donating the entire earth. A person who is unable to undertake pilgrimage, donate articles to the needy and brahmins or conduct yajnas can gain mukti (liberation) by worshipping Vishnu in a Shalagrama shila. Land situated within the radius of three yojanas of a Shalagrama shila becomes sacred to Vishnu even if that land is inhabited by mlecchas (non-Hindus). A devout worshipper who dies in such an area is never reborn again. All sorts of auspicious activities (like taking ablution, donating articles to the needy and brahmins, undergoing austerities and conducting homa) grants merit for all eternity on being conducted in the vicinity of a Shalagrama shila. All sorts of sins whether perceived in mind or committed in deeds for an entire year are destroyed by donating a Shalagrama shila to a brahmin. The person who worships together 12 Shalagrama shilas for a single day earns the merit equivalent of worshipping 12 crore Shivalingas with lotuses made out of gold and residing in Varanasi for eight days. The person who worships together 100 Shalagrama shilas attains Maharloka after death and is reborn as an emperor. Moksha is undoubtedly obtained by the person who worships a Shalagrama shila and Dvaravati shila together. The material is also mentioned in the Skanda Purana and Padma Purana. Restrictions The Pranatoshani Tantra states that nobody except initiated brahmins are allowed to touch a Shalagrama shila. On being touched by somebody other than an initiated brahmin, the Shalagrama shila must be cleansed with panchagavya. However all persons are allowed to be the yajamana for the worship of a Shalagrama shila. The Padma Purana, Patala Khanda, Chapter 20 prohibits women of all castes from touching a Shalagrama shila both directly (by anointing sandalwood paste) and indirectly (by offering flowers). The Padma Purana, Patala Khanda, Chapter 79 states that person who buys and sells Shalagrama shilas is damned in hell as long as the sun exists in the sky. The same fate is destined for the person who approves of buying or selling Shalagrama shilas and the person who determines its monetary value. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 10 states that the person who places the Shalagrama shila on ground is damned in hell for a hundred Manvantaras where he experiences the pain of being eaten by worms. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 24 states that failing to keep one's promise or speaking lies while holding the Shalagrama shila in hand leads the person to be damned in hell for the life-time of Brahma. It also states that the person who removes a tulasi leaf from a Shalagrama shila is separated from his wife in his next birth. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 35 states that the person who swears falsely while touching a Shalagrama shila experiences the pain of being burnt in red-hot coal for the lifetime of 14 Indras in hell and is reborn as a worm residing in faeces for seven consecutive births. References Forms of Vishnu Vaishnavism Hindu iconography Hindu symbols Objects used in Hindu worship Fossils

The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics. With the hope of understanding life at its most fundamental level, numerous physicists and chemists also took an interest in what would become molecular biology. In its modern sense, molecular biology attempts to explain the phenomena of life starting from the macromolecular properties that generate them. Two categories of macromolecules in particular are the focus of the molecular biologist: 1) nucleic acids, among which the most famous is deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA), the constituent of genes, and 2) proteins, which are the active agents of living organisms. One definition of the scope of molecular biology therefore is to characterize the structure, function and relationships between these two types of macromolecules. This relatively limited definition will suffice to allow us to establish a date for the so-called "molecular revolution", or at least to establish a chronology of its most fundamental developments. General overview In its earliest manifestations, molecular biology—the name was coined by Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1938—was an idea of physical and chemical explanations of life, rather than a coherent discipline. Following the advent of the Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity in the 1910s and the maturation of atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the 1920s, such explanations seemed within reach. Weaver and others encouraged (and funded) research at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics, while prominent physicists such as Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger turned their attention to biological speculation. However, in the 1930s and 1940s it was by no means clear which—if any—cross-disciplinary research would bear fruit; work in colloid chemistry, biophysics and radiation biology, crystallography, and other emerging fields all seemed promising. In 1940, George Beadle and Edward Tatum demonstrated the existence of a precise relationship between genes and proteins. In the course of their experiments connecting genetics with biochemistry, they switched from the genetics mainstay Drosophila to a more appropriate model organism, the fungus Neurospora; the construction and exploitation of new model organisms would become a recurring theme in the development of molecular biology. In 1944, Oswald Avery, working at the Rockefeller Institute of New York, demonstrated that genes are made up of DNA(see Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase confirmed that the genetic material of the bacteriophage, the virus which infects bacteria, is made up of DNA (see Hershey–Chase experiment). In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of the DNA molecule based on the discoveries made by Rosalind Franklin. In 1961, François Jacob and Jacques Monod demonstrated that the products of certain genes regulated the expression of other genes by acting upon specific sites at the edge of those genes. They also hypothesized the existence of an intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called messenger RNA. Between 1961 and 1965, the relationship between the information contained in DNA and the structure of proteins was determined: there is a code, the genetic code, which creates a correspondence between the succession of nucleotides in the DNA sequence and a series of amino acids in proteins. In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and "equal player" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery. The chief discoveries of molecular biology took place in a period of only about twenty-five years. Another fifteen years were required before new and more sophisticated technologies, united today under the name of genetic engineering, would permit the isolation and characterization of genes, in particular those of highly complex organisms. The exploration of the molecular dominion If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of physiological chemistry in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist Justus von Liebig and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist Eduard Buchner. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, "the world of the ignored dimensions," as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. This world is populated by colloids, chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined. The successes of molecular biology derived from the exploration of that unknown world by means of the new technologies developed by chemists and physicists: X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, ultracentrifugation, and electrophoresis. These studies revealed the structure and function of the macromolecules. A milestone in that process was the work of Linus Pauling in 1949, which for the first time linked the specific genetic mutation in patients with sickle cell disease to a demonstrated change in an individual protein, the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes of heterozygous or homozygous individuals. The encounter between biochemistry and genetics The development of molecular biology is also the encounter of two disciplines which made considerable progress in the course of the first thirty years of the twentieth century: biochemistry and genetics. The first studies the structure and function of the molecules which make up living things. Between 1900 and 1940, the central processes of metabolism were described: the process of digestion and the absorption of the nutritive elements derived from alimentation, such as the sugars. Every one of these processes is catalyzed by a particular enzyme. Enzymes are proteins, like the antibodies present in blood or the proteins responsible for muscular contraction. As a consequence, the study of proteins, of their structure and synthesis, became one of the principal objectives of biochemists. The second discipline of biology which developed at the beginning of the 20th century is genetics. After the rediscovery of the laws of Mendel through the studies of Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak in 1900, this science began to take shape thanks to the adoption by Thomas Hunt Morgan, in 1910, of a model organism for genetic studies, the famous fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). Shortly after, Morgan showed that the genes are localized on chromosomes. Following this discovery, he continued working with Drosophila and, along with numerous other research groups, confirmed the importance of the gene in the life and development of organisms. Nevertheless, the chemical nature of genes and their mechanisms of action remained a mystery. Molecular biologists committed themselves to the determination of the structure, and the description of the complex relations between, genes and proteins. The development of molecular biology was not just the fruit of some sort of intrinsic "necessity" in the history of ideas, but was a characteristically historical phenomenon, with all of its unknowns, imponderables and contingencies: the remarkable developments in physics at the beginning of the 20th century highlighted the relative lateness in development in biology, which became the "new frontier" in the search for knowledge about the empirical world. Moreover, the developments of the theory of information and cybernetics in the 1940s, in response to military exigencies, brought to the new biology a significant number of fertile ideas and, especially, metaphors. The choice of bacteria and of its virus, the bacteriophage, as models for the study of the fundamental mechanisms of life was almost natural - they are the smallest living organisms known to exist - and at the same time the fruit of individual choices. This model owes its success, above all, to the fame and the sense of organization of Max Delbrück, a German physicist, who was able to create a dynamic research group, based in the United States, whose exclusive scope was the study of the bacteriophage: the phage group. The phage group was an informal network of biologists that carried out basic research mainly on bacteriophage T4 and made numerous seminal contributions to microbial genetics and the origins of molecular biology in the mid-20th century. In 1961, Sydney Brenner, an early member of the phage group, collaborated with Francis Crick, Leslie Barnett and Richard Watts-Tobin at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to perform genetic experiments that demonstrated the basic nature of the genetic code for proteins. These experiments, carried out with mutants of the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4, showed, that for a gene that encodes a protein, three sequential bases of the gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. They also found that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that such a sequence is read from a fixed starting point. During 1962-1964 phage T4 researchers provided an opportunity to study the function of virtually all of the genes that are essential for growth of the bacteriophage under laboratory conditions. These studies were facilitated by the discovery of two classes of conditional lethal mutants. One class of such mutants is known as amber mutants. Another class of conditional lethal mutants is referred to as temperature-sensitive mutants. Studies of these two classes of mutants led to considerable insight into numerous fundamental biologic problems. Thus understanding was gained on the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair and DNA recombination. Furthermore, understanding was gained on the processes by which viruses are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). Also, the role of chain terminating codons was elucidated. One noteworthy study used amber mutants defective in the gene encoding the major head protein of bacteriophage T4. This experiment provided strong evidence for the widely held, but prior to 1964 still unproven, "sequence hypothesis" that the amino acid sequence of a protein is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene determining the protein. Thus, this study demonstrated the co-linearity of the gene with its encoded protein. The geographic panorama of the developments of the new biology was conditioned above all by preceding work. The US, where genetics had developed the most rapidly, and the UK, where there was a coexistence of both genetics and biochemical research of highly advanced levels, were in the avant-garde. Germany, the cradle of the revolutions in physics, with the best minds and the most advanced laboratories of genetics in the world, should have had a primary role in the development of molecular biology. But history decided differently: the arrival of the Nazis in 1933 - and, to a less extreme degree, the rigidification of totalitarian measures in fascist Italy - caused the emigration of a large number of Jewish and non-Jewish scientists. The majority of them fled to the US or the UK, providing an extra impulse to the scientific dynamism of those nations. These movements ultimately made molecular biology a truly international science from the very beginnings. History of DNA biochemistry The study of DNA is a central part of molecular biology. First isolation of DNA Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their "nucleic acid" isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types—one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA. Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered a substance he called "nuclein" in 1869. Somewhat later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, Richard Altmann, named it "nucleic acid". This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes. In 1919 Phoebus Levene at the Rockefeller Institute identified the components (the four bases, the sugar and the phosphate chain) and he showed that the components of DNA were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base. He called each of these units a nucleotide and suggested the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups, which are the 'backbone' of the molecule. However Levene thought the chain was short and that the bases repeated in the same fixed order. Torbjörn Caspersson and Einar Hammersten showed that DNA was a polymer. Chromosomes and inherited traits In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" which would be made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". Max Delbrück, Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky, and Karl G. Zimmer published results in 1935 suggesting that chromosomes are very large molecules the structure of which can be changed by treatment with X-rays, and that by so changing their structure it was possible to change the heritable characteristics governed by those chromosomes. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns from DNA. He was not able to propose the correct structure but the patterns showed that DNA had a regular structure and therefore it might be possible to deduce what this structure was. In 1943, Oswald Theodore Avery and a team of scientists discovered that traits proper to the "smooth" form of the Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria merely by making the killed "smooth" (S) form available to the live "rough" (R) form. Quite unexpectedly, the living R Pneumococcus bacteria were transformed into a new strain of the S form, and the transferred S characteristics turned out to be heritable. Avery called the medium of transfer of traits the transforming principle; he identified DNA as the transforming principle, and not protein as previously thought. He essentially redid Frederick Griffith's experiment. In 1953, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did an experiment (Hershey–Chase experiment) that showed, in T2 phage, that DNA is the genetic material (Hershey shared the Nobel prize with Luria). Discovery of the structure of DNA In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at King's College London and was led by Maurice Wilkins and was later joined by Rosalind Franklin. Another group consisting of Francis Crick and James Watson was at Cambridge. A third group was at Caltech and was led by Linus Pauling. Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure. Helix structure In 1948, Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns and from attempts to physically model the structures. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical DNA structure based on Astbury's data.) Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick. Complementary nucleotides In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Erwin Chargaff visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides — adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine — the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions. Using X-ray diffraction, as well as other data from Rosalind Franklin and her information that the bases were paired, James Watson and Francis Crick arrived at the first accurate model of DNA's molecular structure in 1953, which was accepted through inspection by Rosalind Franklin. The discovery was announced on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25, 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, "Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953 with the headline "Form of `Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Bragg's original announcement at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the press. In 1962 Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their determination of the structure of DNA. "Central Dogma" Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on February 21, 1953, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on February 28. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the "central dogma of molecular biology", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "sequence hypothesis." A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, and Har Gobind Khorana and others deciphered the genetic code not long afterward (1966). These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. History of RNA tertiary structure Pre-history: the helical structure of RNA The earliest work in RNA structural biology coincided, more or less, with the work being done on DNA in the early 1950s. In their seminal 1953 paper, Watson and Crick suggested that van der Waals crowding by the 2`OH group of ribose would preclude RNA from adopting a double helical structure identical to the model they proposed - what we now know as B-form DNA. This provoked questions about the three-dimensional structure of RNA: could this molecule form some type of helical structure, and if so, how? As with DNA, early structural work on RNA centered around isolation of native RNA polymers for fiber diffraction analysis. In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable. In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules. These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA. These results paved the way for a series of investigations into the various properties and propensities of RNA. Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, numerous papers were published on various topics in RNA structure, including RNA-DNA hybridization, triple stranded RNA, and even small-scale crystallography of RNA di-nucleotides - G-C, and A-U - in primitive helix-like arrangements. For a more in-depth review of the early work in RNA structural biology, see the article The Era of RNA Awakening: Structural biology of RNA in the early years by Alexander Rich. The beginning: crystal structure of tRNAPHE In the mid-1960s, the role of tRNA in protein synthesis was being intensively studied. At this point, ribosomes had been implicated in protein synthesis, and it had been shown that an mRNA strand was necessary for the formation of these structures. In a 1964 publication, Warner and Rich showed that ribosomes active in protein synthesis contained tRNA molecules bound at the A and P sites, and discussed the notion that these molecules aided in the peptidyl transferase reaction. However, despite considerable biochemical characterization, the structural basis of tRNA function remained a mystery. In 1965, Holley et al. purified and sequenced the first tRNA molecule, initially proposing that it adopted a cloverleaf structure, based largely on the ability of certain regions of the molecule to form stem loop structures. The isolation of tRNA proved to be the first major windfall in RNA structural biology. Following Robert W. Holley's publication, numerous investigators began work on isolation tRNA for crystallographic study, developing improved methods for isolating the molecule as they worked. By 1968 several groups had produced tRNA crystals, but these proved to be of limited quality and did not yield data at the resolutions necessary to determine structure. In 1971, Kim et al. achieved another breakthrough, producing crystals of yeast tRNAPHE that diffracted to 2-3 Ångström resolutions by using spermine, a naturally occurring polyamine, which bound to and stabilized the tRNA. Despite having suitable crystals, however, the structure of tRNAPHE was not immediately solved at high resolution; rather it took pioneering work in the use of heavy metal derivatives and a good deal more time to produce a high-quality density map of the entire molecule. In 1973, Kim et al. produced a 4 Ångström map of the tRNA molecule in which they could unambiguously trace the entire backbone. This solution would be followed by many more, as various investigators worked to refine the structure and thereby more thoroughly elucidate the details of base pairing and stacking interactions, and validate the published architecture of the molecule. The tRNAPHE structure is notable in the field of nucleic acid structure in general, as it represented the first solution of a long-chain nucleic acid structure of any kind - RNA or DNA - preceding Richard E. Dickerson's solution of a B-form dodecamer by nearly a decade. Also, tRNAPHE demonstrated many of the tertiary interactions observed in RNA architecture which would not be categorized and more thoroughly understood for years to come, providing a foundation for all future RNA structural research. The renaissance: the hammerhead ribozyme and the group I intron: P4-6 For a considerable time following the first tRNA structures, the field of RNA structure did not dramatically advance. The ability to study an RNA structure depended upon the potential to isolate the RNA target. This proved limiting to the field for many years, in part because other known targets - i.e., the ribosome - were significantly more difficult to isolate and crystallize. Further, because other interesting RNA targets had simply not been identified, or were not sufficiently understood to be deemed interesting, there was simply a lack of things to study structurally. As such, for some twenty years following the original publication of the tRNAPHE structure, the structures of only a handful of other RNA targets were solved, with almost all of these belonging to the transfer RNA family. This unfortunate lack of scope would eventually be overcome largely because of two major advancements in nucleic acid research: the identification of ribozymes, and the ability to produce them via in vitro transcription. Subsequent to Tom Cech's publication implicating the Tetrahymena group I intron as an autocatalytic ribozyme, and Sidney Altman's report of catalysis by ribonuclease P RNA, several other catalytic RNAs were identified in the late 1980s, including the hammerhead ribozyme. In 1994, McKay et al. published the structure of a 'hammerhead RNA-DNA ribozyme-inhibitor complex' at 2.6 Ångström resolution, in which the autocatalytic activity of the ribozyme was disrupted via binding to a DNA substrate. The conformation of the ribozyme published in this paper was eventually shown to be one of several possible states, and although this particular sample was catalytically inactive, subsequent structures have revealed its active-state architecture. This structure was followed by Jennifer Doudna's publication of the structure of the P4-P6 domains of the Tetrahymena group I intron, a fragment of the ribozyme originally made famous by Cech. The second clause in the title of this publication - Principles of RNA Packing - concisely evinces the value of these two structures: for the first time, comparisons could be made between well described tRNA structures and those of globular RNAs outside the transfer family. This allowed the framework of categorization to be built for RNA tertiary structure. It was now possible to propose the conservation of motifs, folds, and various local stabilizing interactions. For an early review of these structures and their implications, see RNA FOLDS: Insights from recent crystal structures, by Doudna and Ferre-D'Amare. In addition to the advances being made in global structure determination via crystallography, the early 1990s also saw the implementation of NMR as a powerful technique in RNA structural biology. Coincident with the large-scale ribozyme structures being solved crystallographically, a number of structures of small RNAs and RNAs complexed with drugs and peptides were solved using NMR. In addition, NMR was now being used to investigate and supplement crystal structures, as exemplified by the determination of an isolated tetraloop-receptor motif structure published in 1997. Investigations such as this enabled a more precise characterization of the base pairing and base stacking interactions which stabilized the global folds of large RNA molecules. The importance of understanding RNA tertiary structural motifs was prophetically well described by Michel and Costa in their publication identifying the tetraloop motif: "..it should not come as a surprise if self-folding RNA molecules were to make intensive use of only a relatively small set of tertiary motifs. Identifying these motifs would greatly aid modeling enterprises, which will remain essential as long as the crystallization of large RNAs remains a difficult task". The modern era: the age of RNA structural biology The resurgence of RNA structural biology in the mid-1990s has caused a veritable explosion in the field of nucleic acid structural research. Since the publication of the hammerhead and P4-6 structures, numerous major contributions to the field have been made. Some of the most noteworthy examples include the structures of the Group I and Group II introns, and the Ribosome solved by Nenad Ban and colleagues in the laboratory of Thomas Steitz. The first three structures were produced using in vitro transcription, and that NMR has played a role in investigating partial components of all four structures - testaments to the indispensability of both techniques for RNA research. Most recently, the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Ada Yonath, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas Steitz for their structural work on the ribosome, demonstrating the prominent role RNA structural biology has taken in modern molecular biology. History of protein biochemistry First isolation and classification Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others. Members of this class (called the "albuminoids", Eiweisskörper, or matières albuminoides) were recognized by their ability to coagulate or flocculate under various treatments such as heat or acid; well-known examples at the start of the nineteenth century included albumen from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and wheat gluten. The similarity between the cooking of egg whites and the curdling of milk was recognized even in ancient times; for example, the name albumen for the egg-white protein was coined by Pliny the Elder from the Latin albus ovi (egg white). With the advice of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder carried out elemental analyses of common animal and plant proteins. To everyone's surprise, all proteins had nearly the same empirical formula, roughly C400H620N100O120 with individual sulfur and phosphorus atoms. Mulder published his findings in two papers (1837,1838) and hypothesized that there was one basic substance (Grundstoff) of proteins, and that it was synthesized by plants and absorbed from them by animals in digestion. Berzelius was an early proponent of this theory and proposed the name "protein" for this substance in a letter dated 10 July 1838 The name protein that he propose for the organic oxide of fibrin and albumin, I wanted to derive from [the Greek word] πρωτειος, because it appears to be the primitive or principal substance of animal nutrition. Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid, leucine, for which he found a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 Da. Purifications and measurements of mass The minimum molecular weight suggested by Mulder's analyses was roughly 9 kDa, hundreds of times larger than other molecules being studied. Hence, the chemical structure of proteins (their primary structure) was an active area of research until 1949, when Fred Sanger sequenced insulin. The (correct) theory that proteins were linear polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds was proposed independently and simultaneously by Franz Hofmeister and Emil Fischer at the same conference in 1902. However, some scientists were sceptical that such long macromolecules could be stable in solution. Consequently, numerous alternative theories of the protein primary structure were proposed, e.g., the colloidal hypothesis that proteins were assemblies of small molecules, the cyclol hypothesis of Dorothy Wrinch, the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden and the pyrrol/piperidine hypothesis of Troensgard (1942). Most of these theories had difficulties in accounting for the fact that the digestion of proteins yielded peptides and amino acids. Proteins were finally shown to be macromolecules of well-defined composition (and not colloidal mixtures) by Theodor Svedberg using analytical ultracentrifugation. The possibility that some proteins are non-covalent associations of such macromolecules was shown by Gilbert Smithson Adair (by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin) and, later, by Frederic M. Richards in his studies of ribonuclease S. The mass spectrometry of proteins has long been a useful technique for identifying posttranslational modifications and, more recently, for probing protein structure. Most proteins are difficult to purify in more than milligram quantities, even using the most modern methods. Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g., those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses. Many techniques of protein purification were developed during World War II in a project led by Edwin Joseph Cohn to purify blood proteins to help keep soldiers alive. In the late 1950s, the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg (= one million milligrams) of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it available at low cost to scientists around the world. This generous act made RNase A the main protein for basic research for the next few decades, resulting in several Nobel Prizes. Protein folding and first structural models The study of protein folding began in 1910 with a famous paper by Harriette Chick and C. J. Martin, in which they showed that the flocculation of a protein was composed of two distinct processes: the precipitation of a protein from solution was preceded by another process called denaturation, in which the protein became much less soluble, lost its enzymatic activity and became more chemically reactive. In the mid-1920s, Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky proposed that denaturation was a reversible process, a correct hypothesis that was initially lampooned by some scientists as "unboiling the egg". Anson also suggested that denaturation was a two-state ("all-or-none") process, in which one fundamental molecular transition resulted in the drastic changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity; he further noted that the free energy changes upon denaturation were much smaller than those typically involved in chemical reactions. In 1929, Hsien Wu hypothesized that denaturation was protein unfolding, a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino acid side chains to the solvent. According to this (correct) hypothesis, exposure of aliphatic and reactive side chains to solvent rendered the protein less soluble and more reactive, whereas the loss of a specific conformation caused the loss of enzymatic activity. Although considered plausible, Wu's hypothesis was not immediately accepted, since so little was known of protein structure and enzymology and other factors could account for the changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity. In the early 1960s, Chris Anfinsen showed that the folding of ribonuclease A was fully reversible with no external cofactors needed, verifying the "thermodynamic hypothesis" of protein folding that the folded state represents the global minimum of free energy for the protein. The hypothesis of protein folding was followed by research into the physical interactions that stabilize folded protein structures. The crucial role of hydrophobic interactions was hypothesized by Dorothy Wrinch and Irving Langmuir, as a mechanism that might stabilize her cyclol structures. Although supported by J. D. Bernal and others, this (correct) hypothesis was rejected along with the cyclol hypothesis, which was disproven in the 1930s by Linus Pauling (among others). Instead, Pauling championed the idea that protein structure was stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonds, an idea advanced initially by William Astbury (1933). Remarkably, Pauling's incorrect theory about H-bonds resulted in his correct models for the secondary structure elements of proteins, the alpha helix and the beta sheet. The hydrophobic interaction was restored to its correct prominence by a famous article in 1959 by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation, based partly on work by Kaj Linderstrøm-Lang. The ionic nature of proteins was demonstrated by Bjerrum, Weber and Arne Tiselius, but Linderstrom-Lang showed that the charges were generally accessible to solvent and not bound to each other (1949). The secondary and low-resolution tertiary structure of globular proteins was investigated initially by hydrodynamic methods, such as analytical ultracentrifugation and flow birefringence. Spectroscopic methods to probe protein structure (such as circular dichroism, fluorescence, near-ultraviolet and infrared absorbance) were developed in the 1950s. The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were solved by X-ray crystallography in the 1960s and by NMR in the 1980s. , the Protein Data Bank has over 150,000 atomic-resolution structures of proteins. In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies has achieved atomic resolution, and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains is approaching atomic resolution. See also History of biology History of biotechnology History of genetics References Fruton, Joseph. Proteins, Genes, Enzymes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1999. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology, Oxford University Press, Reprint 1996 Morange, Michel. A History of Molecular Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1998. Fry, Michael. Landmark Experiments in Molecular Biology. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. 2016. History of biology by subdiscipline History of chemistry

Rongbuk Monastery (; other spellings include Rongpu, Rongphu, Rongphuk and Rong sbug ()), also known as Dzarongpu or Dzarong, is a Tibetan Buddhist monastery of the Nyingma sect in Basum Township, Dingri County, in Shigatse Prefecture of Tibet. Location Rongbuk Monastery lies near the base of the north side of Mount Everest at above sea level, at the end of the Dzakar Chu valley. Rongbuk is claimed to be the highest-elevation monastery in the world. However, the true highest monastery in the world is Drirapuk Monastery in Ngari Prefecture, at an altitude of . For Sherpas living on the south slopes of Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal, Rongbuk Monastery was an important pilgrimage site, accessed in a few days' travel across the Himalaya through the Nangpa La. The monastery was also regularly visited by the early expeditions to Mount Everest in the 1920s and 1930s after a five-week journey from Darjeeling in the Indian foothills of the Himalaya. Most past and current expeditions attempting to summit Mount Everest from the north, Tibetan side establish their Base Camp near the tongue of Rongbuk Glacier about south of the Monastery. Today, the monastery is accessible by road after a two- to three-hour drive from the Friendship Highway from either Shelkar (New Tingri) or Old Tingri. From Rongbuk Monastery, there are dramatic views of the north face of Mount Everest, and one of the first British explorers to see it, John Noel, described it: "Some colossal architect, who built with peaks and valleys, seemed here to have wrought a dramatic prodigy—a hall of grandeur that led to the mountain." Architecture In front of the Monastery, there is a large, round, terraced chorten containing a reliquary. History, religious and cultural significance Rongbuk Monastery was founded in 1902 by the Nyingmapa Lama Ngawang Tenzin Norbu in an area of meditation huts and caves that had been in use by communities of nuns since the 18th century. Hermitage meditation caves dot the cliff walls all around the monastery complex and up and down the valley. Mani stone walls, carved with sacred syllables and prayers, line the paths. The founding Rongbuk Lama, also known as Zatul Rinpoche, was much respected by the Tibetans. Even though the Rongbuk Lama viewed the early climbers as "heretics," he gave them his protection and supplied them with meat and tea while also praying for their conversion. It was the Rongbuk Lama who gave Namgyal Wangdi the name Ngawang Tenzin Norbu, or Tenzing Norgay, as a young child. In previous times, the Monastery became very active with Buddhist teachings at certain times of the year. It was, and is, the destination of special Buddhist pilgrimages where annual ceremonies are held for spectators coming from as far away as Nepal and Mongolia. These ceremonies were shared with satellite monasteries across the Himalaya also founded by the Rongbuk Lama. These ceremonies continue to this day, notably at the Sherpa Monastery at Tengboche. Rongbuk Monastery was completely destroyed by the excesses of China's Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) by 1974, and was left in ruins for several years, as recorded by photo-journalist Galen Rowell in 1981. The monastery's vast treasury of books and costumes, which had been taken for safekeeping to Tengboche, was lost in a 1989 fire. Since 1983 renovation work has been carried out and some of the new murals are reportedly excellent. Adjacent to the monastery there is a basic guesthouse and small but cosy restaurant. According to Michael Palin, it now houses thirty Buddhist monks and thirty nuns, but another source reports that locals say there are only about 20 nuns and 10 monks, although previously there were about 500 monks and nuns living here. In 2011, Rongbuk Monastery was ranked at the top of CNN's 'Great Places to be a Recluse'. References External links Rongbuk Monastery, NOVA. Buddhist temples in Tibet Mount Everest Religious organizations established in 1902 Shigatse Nyingma monasteries and temples

"Don't Bring Me Down" is a song written by Johnny Dee (road manager for British band the Fairies) and first performed by the rock band the Pretty Things in 1964. It was a number 10 hit on the UK Singles Chart, and reached number 34 in Canada. The song was featured on the American version of their debut album, The Pretty Things. Personnel Phil May – vocals, harmonica Dick Taylor – lead guitar Brian Pendleton – guitar John Stax – bass guitar Viv Prince – drums References Pretty Things songs 1964 singles Fontana Records singles 1964 songs

State Route 74 (SR 74) is a state highway that runs southeast-to-northwest through portions of Bibb, Monroe, Upson, Pike, Meriwether, Coweta, Fayette, and Fulton counties in the central part of the U.S. state of Georgia. The route connects the Macon and Fairburn, via Thomaston, Woodbury, and Peachtree City. Route description SR 74 begins at an interchange with Interstate 75 (I-75) and SR 540 in the Unionville neighborhood of Macon, in Bibb County. This interchange is at the southwestern edge of Mercer University. Just over later, it intersects US 41/SR 247 (Pio Nono Avenue). It curves to the southwest, passing Macon Mall. It heads west-northwest, passing Macon Memorial Park Cemetery, before an interchange with I-475. It passes just north of Lake Tobesofkee and the Tobesofkee Recreation Area, before crossing into Monroe County. The highway gradually zigzags its way to an intersection with SR 42. It continues to the west and intersects US 341/SR 7 (Peach Blossom Trail), just north-northeast of Culloden. Then, it heads northwest into Upson County. It curves into Yatesville. It heads west-northwest and curves to the southwest, to enter Thomaston. In town, the highway begins a concurrency with SR 36 (Barnesville Highway). They intersect US 19/SR 3. At the next block, SR 36/SR 74 turn to the left onto South Green Street, while SR 74 Alternate (West Main Street) begins straight ahead. One more block later, SR 74 splits off to the west onto West Gordon Street. It curves to the northwest and meets the western terminus of SR 74 Alternate just before leaving town. It continues to the northwest, then curves to the southwest, before heading northwest again. The highway continues to the northwest, through rural areas of the county and crosses the southwestern corner of Pike County. South-southwest of Molena, SR 18/SR 109 begin a concurrency to the west. The three highways head west-southwest and Flint River into Meriwether County. They enter Woodbury. There, at the intersection with SR 85, SR 74 splits off to the north, running concurrent with SR 85. A short distance later, they meet the northern terminus of SR 85 Alternate (Whitehouse Parkway). Farther to the north-northwest, in Gay, is the eastern terminus of SR 109 Spur (Greenville Street). In the unincorporated community of Alps, they intersect SR 362, which briefly joins the concurrency. Less than later, they reach the Meriwether–Coweta county line. The concurrent highways pass through Haralson and enter the southeast part of Senoia. There, they intersect with SR 16 (Wells Street). Less than later, they cross over Line Creek, into Fayette County. They enter Starrs Mill, where SR 74 departs to the northwest. Almost immediately, it enters Peachtree City. The highway passes by the Atlanta Regional Airport. Farther to the north-northwest, it intersects SR 54. SR 74 passes through Tyrone and enters Fulton County. Just under later, it meets an interchange with I-85 in Fairburn. The highway curves to the northwest and runs underneath a bridge that carries US 29/SR 14 (Roosevelt Highway). At the ramp that leads to US 29/SR 14, SR 74 takes the ramp and ends at Roosevelt Highway. The only portion of SR 74 that is part of the National Highway System, a system of routes determined to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility, and defense, is from SR 54 in Peachtree City to its northern terminus. Major intersections Bannered route State Route 74 Alternate (SR 74 Alt.) is a alternate route that exists entirely within the central part of Upson County. Its route is completely within the city limits of Thomaston. It begins at an intersection with the SR 74 mainline (West Gordon Street) in the far western part of Thomaston. It heads east-southeast and gradually curves to the southeast. It then curves back to the east. It meets its eastern terminus, an intersection with Green Street, one block north of SR 36/SR 74, in the main part of town. Here, the roadway continues as West Main Street. See also References External links Georgia Roads (Routes 61 - 80) 074 Transportation in Macon, Georgia Transportation in Bibb County, Georgia Transportation in Monroe County, Georgia Transportation in Upson County, Georgia Transportation in Pike County, Georgia Transportation in Meriwether County, Georgia Transportation in Coweta County, Georgia Transportation in Fayette County, Georgia Transportation in Fulton County, Georgia

Jesús Hector Gutiérrez Rebollo (19 April 1934 – 19 December 2013) was a Mexican military general who was sentenced to 40 years in prison on multiple charges, including involvement in organized crime in the late nineties. Biography He was born in 1934 in Jonacatepec, Morelos. He was a career soldier who rose to the rank of Division General. He commanded the Fifth Military Region based in Jalisco, and worked for the office of the Attorney General where he was appointed the country's top-ranking drug interdiction officer in 1996 as head of the Instituto Nacional para el Combate a las Drogas (INCD). Gutiérrez had access to local intelligence and to intelligence provided to Mexico by the United States, including anti-drug investigations, wiretaps, interdiction programs, operations and informant identities. Arrest and charges The authorities began investigating Gutiérrez on February 6, 1997, after they received a tip that he had moved into an expensive apartment "whose rent could not be paid for with the wage received by a public servant." Mexican authorities also obtained a recording of Gutiérrez and drug lord Amado Carrillo Fuentes in which Gutiérrez allegedly discussed payments to be made to him in exchange for ignoring Carrillo Fuentes' illegal drug activities. Gutiérrez was taken into custody and charged with bribery, perverting the course of justice and facilitating the transportation of cocaine. Gutiérrez Rebollo later was convicted of aiding the drug lord Amado Carrillo Fuentes. Early in 1997, he was fired from his post after an investigation showed that he had received bribes from the Juárez drug cartel. He was sentenced to 31 years 10 months 15 days imprisonment for misuse of weapons restricted to the Army. In 2007 he was sentenced by a federal court to a further forty years imprisonment and a fine of 24,716,829 pesos. Death Gutiérrez died of brain cancer at the Central Military Hospital in Mexico City on 19 December 2013, while he was serving his 40-year sentence. He was 79. In popular culture Traffic is a 2000 American crime drama film directed by Steven Soderbergh and written by Stephen Gaghan. It explores the intricacies of the illegal drug trade from a number of perspectives: a user, an enforcer, a politician and a trafficker, whose lives affect each other although they do not meet. The character General Arturo Salazar is closely modeled after General Jesús Gutiérrez Rebollo. The telenovela El Señor de los Cielos is loosely based on the life of Amado Carrillo Fuentes and how he was helped by General Jesús Gutiérrez Rebollo. Rebollo is depicted in Season Three of the Netflix series Narcos: Mexico, portrayed by José Zúñiga. References 1934 births 2013 deaths Mexican drug traffickers Mexican prisoners and detainees People from Morelos Prisoners and detainees of Mexico

Diego de Enzinas (c. 1520 – c. 15 March 1547), or Jacobus Dryander, Protestant scholar of Spanish origin, active in the Low Countries and Rome, executed by the Roman Inquisition. Diego de Enzinas was the brother of the better-known Francisco de Enzinas. He was born into a successful merchant family in Burgos, Spain, a little before 1520. After going to the Low Countries for commercial training, he enrolled at the Collegium Trilingue of Louvain on 28 October 1538. He also studied in Paris. In March 1542 he was in Antwerp supervising the printing of a little book titled Breve y compendiosa institución de la religión cristiana. It was a translation made by his brother Francisco of John Calvin's 1538 Latin Catechism, to which was appended a translation of Martin Luther's Freedom of the Christian Man. It also contains an original prologue that may be the work of Diego (rather than Francisco) expressing a Protestant idea of justification by faith in language that would be familiar to Spanish alumbrados and Catholic humanists. Marcel Bataillon calls it 'an exceptional piece of Protestant spiritual writing' (‘un trozo excepcional de literatura espiritual protestante'). Diego planned to smuggle copies of the book into Spain, but the Spanish Inquisition got wind of the plan. As a result, his family persuaded him to seek the relative safety of Rome, where he became part of an evangelical circle. However, the Roman Inquisition was reinstated there in 1542, and Diego fell foul of it after a letter he had written to Luther was intercepted. Under torture, Diego named the members of his religious circle. He was tried, and burned at the stake on or about 15 March 1547. References Bataillon, Marcel, 'Diego de Enzinas en Amberes: ortografía castellana de un libro prohibido', in idem, Érasme et Espagne, 3rd French ed. (Geneva 1991), vol. 3, pp. 249–75. Bataillon, Marcel, 'El hispanismo y los problemas de la historia de la espiritualidad española (a propósito de un libro protestante español olvidado)', in idem, Érasme et Espagne, 3rd French ed. (Geneva 1991), vol. 3. Caponetto, Salvatore, The Protestant Reformation in Sixteenth Century Italy, Anne C. Tedeschi and John Tedeschi (trans.) (Kirksville, MO, 1999), pp. 196–9, 236–7. Enzinas, Francisco de, Epistolario, Ignacio J. García Pinilla (ed.) (Geneva 1995), p 83. A letter from Francisco de Enzinas to Juan Díaz regarding the Breve y compendiosa institución. Herminjard, A.-L., , 9 vols (Nieuwkoop 1965), vol. 9, no. 944a. A letter of Diego de Enzinas (Jacobus Dryander) to Joris Cassander regarding the Breve y compendiosa institución. Luther, Martin, Werke: kritische Gesamtausgabe: Briefwechsel, vol. 11 (Graz 1966), no. 4180. Letter of Diego de Enzinas to Martin Luther. 1520s births 1547 deaths Protestant Reformers People executed by Spain by burning Executed writers Spanish male writers Executed Spanish people

เว้ ( เฮฺว้; จื๋อโนม: ) เป็นเมืองหลักของจังหวัดเถื่อเทียนเว้ ประเทศเวียดนาม และเคยเป็นเมืองหลวงเก่าในสมัยราชวงศ์เหงียนช่วงปี พ.ศ. 2345–2488 มีชื่อเสียงจากโบราณสถานที่มีอยู่ทั่วเมือง จำนวนประชากรอยู่ที่ประมาณ 340,000 คน สภาพทางภูมิศาสตร์ เมืองเว้ตั้งอยู่ในเวียดนามตอนกลาง ริมฝั่งแม่น้ำหอม ถัดเข้ามาในแผ่นดินจากริมฝั่งทะเลจีนใต้เพียง 2–3 ไมล์ ห่างจากกรุงฮานอยไปทางใต้ประมาณ 540 กิโลเมตร และห่างจากนครโฮจิมินห์ไปทางเหนือประมาณ 644 กิโลเมตร สถานที่ท่องเที่ยว ทางฝั่งเหนือของแม่น้ำคือที่ตั้งของพระราชวัง ซึ่งเป็นศูนย์กลางของย่านประวัติศาสตร์ โบราณสถานและวัดสำคัญส่วนใหญ่ในเมืองเว้จะตั้งอยู่ในบริเวณนี้ ทางฝั่งใต้ของแม่น้ำจะเป็นเมืองใหม่ ซึ่งมีย่านธุรกิจและที่พักอาศัยมากมาย สถานที่ท่องเที่ยวในเมืองเว้ส่วนใหญ่จะเป็นป้อมปราการ พระราชวังหลวง และสุสานจักรพรรดิ หมู่โบราณสถานในเมืองเว้ได้รับการขึ้นทะเบียนจากองค์การยูเนสโกให้เป็นมรดกโลกในปี พ.ศ. 2536 เว้เป็นเมืองที่เงียบสงบและน่าค้นหา มีบุคคลที่มีชื่อเสียงจำนวนมากเกิดที่เมืองนี้ หรือได้เคยมาเยือนเมืองนี้ ปัจจุบันเว้เป็นเมืองท่องเที่ยวที่เป็นที่นิยมมากที่สุดแห่งหนึ่งของเวียดนาม ประวัติศาสตร์ แรกเริ่มนั้นเว้เป็นเมืองหลวงของราชวงศ์เหงียน ซึ่งปกครองพื้นที่ส่วนใหญ่ของเวียดนามตอนใต้ในช่วงคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 17-19 เว้มีฐานะเป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศจนถึงปี พ.ศ. 2488 เมื่อจักรพรรดิบ๋าว ดั่ย แห่งเวียดนามทรงสละราชสมบัติ และมีการก่อตั้งรัฐบาลคอมมิวนิสต์ขึ้นที่ฮานอย ทางตอนเหนือของเวียดนาม ต่อมาในปี พ.ศ. 2492 จักรพรรดิบ๋าว ดั่ย ทรงได้รับการช่วยเหลือจากชาวฝรั่งเศสในอาณานิคม และทรงก่อตั้งเมืองหลวงใหม่ คือ ไซ่ง่อน ทางใต้ของประเทศ ในช่วงสงครามเวียดนาม เว้อยู่ในตำแหน่งที่ใกล้กับอาณาเขตระหว่างเวียดนามเหนือและเวียดนามใต้ โดยเว้อยู่ในอาณาเขตของเวียดนามใต้ ในปี พ.ศ. 2511 ตัวเมืองได้รับความเสียหายอย่างหนัก โดยเฉพาะโบราณสถานหลายแห่งที่ระดมยิงและถูกระเบิดจากกองทัพอเมริกัน แม้หลังสงครามสงบลงแล้ว เหล่าโบราณสถานก็ยังไม่ได้รับการดูแลเอาใจใส่ เนื่องจากถูกกลุ่มผู้นำคอมมิวนิสต์และชาวเวียดนามบางส่วนมองว่าเป็นสัญลักษณ์ของระบอบศักดินาในอดีต แต่หลังจากที่แนวคิดทางการเมืองได้เปลี่ยนแปลงไป ก็เริ่มมีการบูรณะโบราณสถานบางส่วนมาจนถึงปัจจุบัน มรดกโลก เมืองเว้ได้รับขึ้นทะเบียนเป็นมรดกโลกในการประชุมคณะกรรมการมรดกโลกสมัยสามัญครั้งที่ 17 เมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2536 ที่เมืองการ์ตาเฮนา ประเทศโคลอมเบีย ด้วยข้อกำหนดและหลักเกณฑ์ในการพิจารณา ดังนี้ (iv) - เป็นตัวอย่างอันโดดเด่นของประเภทของสิ่งก่อสร้างอันเป็นตัวแทนของการพัฒนา ทางด้านวัฒนธรรม สังคม ศิลปกรรม วิทยาศาสตร์ เทคโนโลยี อุตสาหกรรม ในประวัติศาสตร์ของมนุษยชาติ เว้ เว้ เว้ เว้ เว้

จระเข้ตีนเป็ด หรือทับศัพท์ว่า แอลลิเกเตอร์ (, เรียกสั้น ๆ ว่า เกเตอร์: gator) เป็นสกุลของสัตว์เลื้อยคลานในอันดับจระเข้ (Crocodilia) ในวงศ์ Alligatoridae ใช้ชื่อสกุลว่า Alligator แอลลิเกเตอร์เป็นจระเข้ที่อยู่ในวงศ์ Alligatoridae ซึ่งแยกมาจากจระเข้ทั่วไปส่วนใหญ่ที่จะอยู่ในวงศ์ Crocodylidae ซึ่งแยกออกมาจากกันราว 200 ล้านปีก่อน ในมหายุคมีโซโซอิก และไม่เปลี่ยนแปลงรูปร่าง แอลลิเกเตอร์จึงจัดเป็นซากดึกดำบรรพ์มีชีวิตจำพวกหนึ่ง แอลลิเกเตอร์ มีลักษณะที่แตกต่างไปจากจระเข้ในวงศ์ Crocodylidae หรือจระเข้ทั่วไป คือ เมื่อมองจากด้านบนจะเห็นจะงอยปากสั้นและเป็นรูปตัวยู รูจมูกมีขนาดใหญ่ และเมื่อหุบปากแล้วฟันล่างจะไม่โผล่ออกมาให้เห็น เพราะมีส่วปลายของหัวแผ่กว้างและขากรรไกรยาว ส่วนปลายของขากรรไกรล่างซ้ายและขวาเชื่อมต่อกันเป็นพื้นที่แคบ กระดูกแอนโทพเทอรีกอยด์อยู่ห่างจากแถวของฟันที่กระดูกแมคซิลลาเป็นช่องกว้าง กระดูกพาลาทีนมีก้านกระดูกชิ้นยาวอยู่ทางด้านหน้าและยื่นเลยช่องในเบ้าตา พื้นผิวด้านบนของลิ่นมีสารเคอราติน ไม่มีต่อมขจัดเกลือบนลิ้น ปัจจุบัน แอลลิเกเตอร์ มีอยู่ 2 ชนิดเท่านั้น คือ แอลลิเกเตอร์อเมริกัน (Alligator mississippiensis) ซึ่งถือเป็นสัตว์จำพวกจระเข้ที่ใหญ่ที่สุดที่พบได้ในทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ และแอลลิเกเตอร์จีน (A. sinensis) ที่พบในลุ่มแม่น้ำแยงซีในประเทศจีนเท่านั้น และเป็นสัตว์ที่ใกล้สูญพันธุ์มากแล้ว ซึ่งคำว่า แอลลิเกเตอร์นั้น มาจากภาษาสเปนคำว่า "Lagarto" หมายถึง "สัตว์เลื้อยคลาน" อ้างอิง วงศ์แอลลิเกเตอร์ สัตว์ที่พบในทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ สัตว์ที่พบในประเทศจีน เนื้อสัตว์

ออริกซ์ () เป็นสกุลของสัตว์เลี้ยงลูกด้วยนมกีบคู่เคี้ยวเอื้อง จำพวกแอนทิโลปหรือกาเซลล์ พบกระจายพันธุ์ในทวีปแอฟริกาและคาบสมุทรอาหรับ มีลักษณะเด่น คือ เป็นแอนทิโลปขนาดใหญ่ และมีเขาที่บิดเป็นเกลียวยาวแหลม เห็นได้ชัดเจน มีใบหน้ารวมถึงลำตัวช่วงขาที่เป็นลายสีเส้นดำพาดผ่าน ขณะที่ตามลำตัวเป็นสีขาวหรือสีสว่าง ศัพทมูลวิทยา คำว่า "ออริกซ์" มาจากภาษากรีก คำว่า Ὂρυξ óryx หมายถึง ประเภทหนึ่งของแอนทิโลป พหูพจน์ในภาษากรีกคือ óryges และถึงแม้คำว่า oryxes มีการใช้ในภาษาอังกฤษ เฮอรอโดทัส นักประวัติศาสตร์ชาวกรีกโบราณ กล่าวถึงออริกซ์ในลิเบียเรียกว่า "Orus" อาจจะเกี่ยวข้องกับคำกริยาคำว่า ¨oruttoo "หรือ" orussoo " มีความหมาย "ขุด" ทั้งนี้ ออริกซ์สีขาวเป็นที่รู้จักกันดีว่ามีพฤติกรรมขุดหลุมทรายเพื่อใช้ในการหลบความร้อน การจำแนก จำแนกออกได้เป็น 4 ชนิด คือ วงศ์ BOVIDAE วงศ์ย่อย Hippotraginae สกุล Hippotragus สกุลOryx ออริกซ์เขาดาบ, O. dammah เจมส์บอก, O. gazella ออริกซ์แอฟริกาตะวันออก, ไบซาออริกซ์ O. beisa (อดีตใช้ O. gazella) ออริกซ์แอฟริกาตะวันออก (เซนซุสตริกโต), O. b. beisa ออริกซ์ขอบหู O. b. callotis ออริกซ์อาหรับ, ออกริกซ์อาระเบีย, O. leucoryx อ้างอิง แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น แอนทิโลปปศุสัตว์ สัตว์ที่พบในทวีปแอฟริกา สัตว์ที่พบในทวีปเอเชีย