Determining Generative Models of Objects Under Varying Illumination: Shape and Albedo from Multiple Images Using SVD and Integrability
We describe a method of learning generative models of objects from a set of images of the object under different, and unknown, illumination. Such a model allows us to approximate the objects' appearance under a range of lighting conditions. This work is closely related to photometric stereo with unknown light sources and, in particular, to the use of Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) to estimate shape and albedo from multiple images up to a linear transformation (Hayakawa, 1994). Firstly we analyze and extend the SVD approach to this problem. We demonstrate that it applies to objects for which the dominant imaging effects are Lambertian reflectance with a distant light source and a background ambient term. To determine that this is a reasonable approximation we calculate the eigenvectors of the SVD on a set of real objects, under varying lighting conditions, and demonstrate that the first few eigenvectors account for most of the data in agreement with our predictions. We then analyze the linear ambiguities in the SVD approach and demonstrate that previous methods proposed to resolve them (Hayakawa, 1994) are only valid under certain conditions. We discuss alternative possibilities and, in particular, demonstrate that knowledge of the object class is sufficient to resolve this problem. Secondly, we describe the use of surface consistency for putting constraints on the possible solutions. We prove that this constraint reduces the ambiguities to a subspace called the generalized bas relief ambiguity (GBR) which is inherent in the Lambertian reflectance function (and which can be shown to exist even if attached and cast shadows are present (Belhumeur et al., 1997)). We demonstrate the use of surface consistency to solve for the shape and albedo up to a GBR and describe, and implement, a variety of additional assumptions to resolve the GBR. Thirdly, we demonstrate an iterative algorithm that can detect and remove some attached shadows from the objects thereby increasing the accuracy of the reconstructed shape and albedo.