Introduction: The challenge of reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is the learning of a mapping from situations to actions so as to maximize a scalar reward or reinforcement signal. The learner is not told which action to take, as in most forms of machine learning, but instead must discover which actions yield the highest reward by trying them. In the most interesting and challenging cases, actions may affect not only the immediate's reward, but also the next situation, and through that all subsequent rewards. These two characteristics—trial-and-error search and delayed reward—are the two most important distinguishing features of reinforcement learning. Reinforcement learning is both a new and very old topic in AI. The term appears to have been coined by Minsky (1961), and independently in control theory by Waltz and Fu (1965). The earliest machine learning research now viewed as directly relevant was Samuel's (1959) checker player, which used temporal-difference learning to manage delayed reward much as it is used today. Of course learning and reinforcement have been studied in psychology for almost a century, and that work has had a very strong impact on the Al/engineering work. One could in fact consider all of reinforcement learning to be simply the reverse engineering of certain psychological learning processes (e.g., operant conditioning and secondary reinforcement.)1 Despite the early papers mentioned above, reinforcement learning was largely forgotten in the late 1960s and the 1970s. Not until the early 1980s did it gradually become an active and identifiable area of machine learning research (Barto, et al., 1981, 1983; see also Hampson, 1983). Research in genetic algorithms and classifier systems, initiated by John Holland (1975, 1986), has also been an influential part of reinforcement learning research, as has learning automata theory (see Narendra & Thathachar, 1974). Most recently, Chris Watkins (1989) and Paul Werbos (1987), among others, have invigorated theoretical research in reinforcement learning by linking it to optimal control theory and dynamic programming. The seven articles of this special issue are representative of the excellent reinforcement learning research ongoing today. Some are theoretical, some empirical. Most of them use some form of connectionist network as part of their learning method.2 The article by Williams introduces a gradient theory of reinforcement learning analogous to that available for connectionist supervised learning. Whereas Williams' theory treats the case of immediate reward, the article by Tesauro focusses on delayed reward. Tesauro compares temporaldifference and supervised-learning approaches to learning to play backgammon. Among other surprising results, his temporal-difference program learns to play significantly better than the previous world-champion program and as well as expert human players.